Compositions and methods for treatment of prostate carcinoma

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs, pharmaceutical compositions that include one or more of such 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs, and methods of treating and/or ameliorating diseases and/or conditions associated with a cancer, such as prostate cancer with such 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs. Also included are combination therapies wherein a 1,4-naphthoquinone analog disclosed herein, and a hormone therapy agent are provided to a subject suffering from a condition such as cancer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/049,974 filed Sep. 12, 2014, the disclosure of which is hereby expressly incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

Aspects of the present application relate to the fields of chemistry, biochemistry and medicine. More particularly, disclosed herein are novel 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs, pharmaceutical compositions that include one or more of such 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs, and methods of treating and/or ameliorating diseases and/or conditions associated with a cancer, such as prostate cancer with such 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs. Also included are combination therapies, wherein a 1,4-naphthoquinone analog disclosed herein, and a hormone therapy agent, such as a hormonal ablation compound, are provided to a subject having a cancer, such as a prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer develops in the prostate and is typically slow growing; however, some prostate cancers are aggressive. Prostate cancer cells are typically androgen/testosterone/DHT dependent and may metastasize from the prostate to other parts of the body, particularly the bones and lymph nodes. Treatment options for prostate cancer that remains within the prostate include watchful waiting/active surveillance, external beam radiation therapy, brachytherapy, cryosurgery, high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU), and surgery. Hormonal therapy and chemotherapy are often reserved for disease that has spread beyond the prostate. However, there are exceptions in that radiation therapy may be used for some advanced tumors, and hormonal therapy may be used for some early stage tumors.

After one to three years of hormonal therapy, it is common that prostate cancer cells resume growth despite the androgen/testosterone/DHT blockade. Previously referred to as “hormone-refractory prostate cancer” or “androgen-independent prostate cancer,” the term castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is now commonly used. Chemotherapeutic agents and immunotherapy have been shown to prolong survival after CRPC but the survival benefit is limited. Despite the efforts of many, the need for more cancer treatments, in particular prostate cancer treatments, is manifest.

SUMMARY

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (I) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (II) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (III) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (IV) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a pharmaceutical composition containing a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), and a hormone therapy agent. The pharmaceutical composition can be used for inhibiting and/or delaying prostate cancer cell growth and/or the onset of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage I prostate cancer to stage II prostate cancer and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage II prostate cancer to stage III prostate cancer, and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage III prostate cancer to stage IV prostate cancer and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage IV prostate cancer and/or for inhibiting or delaying the onset of metastasis after the onset of prostate cancer. The pharmaceutical composition can be used for decreasing prostate tumor size. The hormone therapy agent can be selected from cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent is an agent that reduces the production of testosterone. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent is an agent that reduces the production of testosterone and/or inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent is not an androgen receptor antagonist. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent can be selected from abiraterone, finasteride, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, equol, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of inhibiting or delaying the growth of prostate cancer, and/or inhibiting or delaying the onset of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage I prostate cancer to stage II prostate cancer and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage II prostate cancer to stage III prostate cancer, and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage III prostate cancer to stage IV prostate cancer and/or for inhibiting or delaying progression of stage IV prostate cancer and/or for inhibiting or delaying the onset of metastasis after the onset of prostate cancer by providing a subject having prostate cancer with a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), and, optionally, identifying or selecting the subject prior to administration as a subject having prostate cancer or CRPC or stage I, stage II, stage II, or stage IV prostate cancer, and, optionally, determining the inhibition, amelioration, or remission of prostate cancer or CRPC or stage I, stage II, stage III, or stage IV prostate cancer during or after administration. The compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered to the subject in combination with an androgen deprivation therapy. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy is surgical orchiectomy. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of a chemical castration agent selected from an anti-androgen compound, an estrogen, a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist, and a LHRH antagonist or any combination thereof. The androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of one or more agents selected from cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of an agent that reduces the production of testosterone. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of an agent that inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of an agent that reduces the production of testosterone and/or inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of an androgen deprivation therapy agent that is not an androgen receptor antagonist. In some alternatives, the androgen deprivation therapy can be the administration of an agent selected from abiraterone, finasteride, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, equol, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of inhibiting or delaying the growth of prostate cancer by providing a subject having prostate cancer with a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), while reducing the amount of an androgen in the subject. In some alternatives, the amount of androgen can be reduced by providing the subject with a hormone therapy. In some alternatives, the amount of androgen can be reduced by providing the subject with one or more agents selected from cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent is an agent that reduces the production of testosterone. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent is an agent that reduces the production of testosterone and/or inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent is not an androgen receptor antagonist. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent can be selected from abiraterone, finasteride, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, equol, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method for identifying a compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth by providing a pseudo-orthotopic chamber mouse model, where the mouse model has prostate cancer; reducing the level of an androgen in the mouse model; providing the mouse model with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutical salt thereof; and evaluating whether the compound is effective in inhibiting the growth of prostate cancer cells.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of inhibiting or delaying the onset of castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by classifying a subject as a member of a population that is at risk for developing CRPC and providing the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutical salt thereof.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of identifying a compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutical salt thereof, in the absence of androgen; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; and classifying the compound into a population that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth in the absence of androgen, or into a population that does not inhibit or delay prostate cancer cell growth. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of identifying a compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutical salt thereof, and with androgen concentrations at or below the concentrations of the average surgically castrated male subject; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; and classifying the compound into a population that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth with androgen concentrations at or below the concentrations of the average surgically castrated male subject, or into a population that does not inhibit or delay prostate cancer cell growth. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of identifying a compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutical salt thereof, and with testosterone concentration at <20 ng/dL; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; and classifying the compound into a population that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth with testosterone concentration at <20 ng/dL, or into a population that does not inhibit or delay prostate cancer cell growth. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of identifying a compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutical salt thereof, and with a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; and classifying the compound into a population that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth in combination with a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, or into a population that does not inhibit or delay prostate cancer cell growth.

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of making a prostate cancer therapeutic by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), in the absence of androgen; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; from said one or more compounds, selecting a compound that inhibits prostate cancer cell growth in the absence of androgen; and formulating the compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth in the absence of androgen for administration to a subject suffering from prostate cancer. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of making a prostate cancer therapeutic by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), with androgen concentrations at or below the concentrations of the average surgically castrated male subject; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; from said one or more compounds, selecting a compound that inhibits prostate cancer cell growth with androgen concentrations at or below the concentrations of the average surgically castrated male subject; and formulating the compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth with androgen concentrations at or below the concentrations of the average surgically castrated male subject for administration to a subject suffering from prostate cancer. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of making a prostate cancer therapeutic by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), with testosterone concentration at <20 ng/dL; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; from said one or more compounds, selecting a compound that inhibits prostate cancer cell growth with testosterone concentration at <20 ng/dL; and formulating the compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth with testosterone concentration at <20 ng/dL for administration to a subject suffering from prostate cancer. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of making a prostate cancer therapeutic by contacting prostate cancer cells with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), and with a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor; determining the presence or absence of an inhibition or delay in prostate cancer cell growth; from said one or more compounds, selecting a compound that inhibits prostate cancer cell growth in combination with a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor; and formulating the compound that inhibits or delays prostate cancer cell growth in combination with a 5-alpha reductase inhibitor for administration to a subject suffering from prostate cancer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a typical steroid/androgen synthesis pathway.

FIGS. 2A-2E summarize results of cytotoxicity assays performed to evaluate the effects of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on the proliferation of PTEN-P2 mouse prostate cancer cells. The X axis depicts drug concentrations (μM) used in each of the treatments. The Y axis depicts the percentage of cell viability observed in each of the treatments.

FIGS. 3A-3D summarize results of cytotoxicity assays performed to evaluate the effects of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on the proliferation of PTEN-P2 mouse prostate cancer cells. The X axis depicts drug concentrations (μM) used in each of the treatments. The Y axis depicts the percentage of cell viability observed in each of the treatments.

FIG. 4 illustrates the effects of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on the proliferation of SKBR-3 human breast cancer cells. The X axis depicts drug concentrations (μM) used in each of the treatments. The Y axis depicts the percentage of cell viability observed in each of the treatments.

FIG. 5 illustrates the effects of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on the proliferation of HT1080 human fibrosarcoma cells. The X axis depicts drug concentrations (μM) used in each of the treatments. The Y axis depicts the percentage of cell viability observed in each of the treatments.

FIG. 6 summarizes results of assays of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs for androgen receptor degradation in PTEN-P2 cells. Cells were plated in 60 mm dishes containing normal growth medium (DMEM without phenol-red, 10% FBS, penicillin/streptomycin, glutamine, Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium, DHT 10-8M). Three days after plating, analogs were individually added onto cells for 6 hours. The lanes labelled with “Plb” were cell samples treated with plumbagin. The lanes labelled with “0” were cell samples treated with a negative control solution that contained DMSO solvent only. The remaining lanes are labelled according to the analogs applied to the cells samples. All analogs were used at 20 μM, except for G1 and plumbagin that were used at 10 μM and 8 μM, respectively. Western blot analyses were performed by using anti-androgen receptor antibodies. Nitrocellulose membranes were subsequently stripped for reprobing with a loading control to ensure equal loading.

FIG. 7 shows the effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs R1 and G6 on the phosphorylation of ERK and AKT in PTEN-P2 cells.

FIG. 8 shows the results of 1,4-naphthoquinone analog R6 on ERK phosphorylation and AR degradation in PTEN-P2 cells.

FIG. 9 shows the in vivo effect of plumbagin, 5-methoxynaphthalene-1,4-dione, and 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione, given in combination with castration in a chamber mouse model of prostate cancer.

FIG. 10 shows the in vivo effect of plumbagin and several 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs, given in combination with castration in a chamber mouse model of prostate cancer after 20 days of treatment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION I. Definitions

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. All patents, applications, published applications and other publications referenced herein are expressly incorporated by reference in their entireties unless stated otherwise. In the event that there are a plurality of definitions for a term herein, those in this section prevail unless stated otherwise.

As used herein, any “R” group(s) such as, without limitation, R, R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹², and R¹³ represent substituents that can be attached to the indicated atom. An R group may be substituted or unsubstituted.

As used herein, “C_(a) to C_(b)” in which “a” and “b” are integers refer to the number of carbon atoms in an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl group, or the number of carbon atoms in the ring of a cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl or heteroalicyclyl group. That is, the alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, ring of the cycloalkyl, ring of the cycloalkenyl, ring of the cycloalkynyl, ring of the aryl, ring of the heteroaryl or ring of the heteroalicyclyl can contain from “a” to “b”, inclusive, carbon atoms. Thus, for example, a “C₁ to C₄ alkyl” group refers to all alkyl groups having from 1 to 4 carbons, that is, CH₃—, CH₃CH₂—, CH₃CH₂CH₂—, (CH₃)₂CH—, CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂—, CH₃CH₂CH(CH₃)— and (CH₃)₃C—. If no “a” and “b” are designated with regard to an alkyl or alkenyl group, the broadest range described in these definitions is to be assumed.

As used herein, the term “abarelix” refers to abarelix and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including acetyl-D-β-naphthylalanyl-D-4-chlorophenylalanyl-D-3-pyridylalanyl-L-seryl-L-N-methyl-tyrosyl-D-asparagyl-L-leucyl-L-N(ε)-isopropyl-lysyl-L-prolyl-D-alanyl-amide. Abarelix can include Plenaxis™.

As used herein, the term “abiraterone” refers to abiraterone and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including abiraterone acetate. Abiraterone includes Abretone and ZYTIGA™. Abiraterone includes (3β)-17-(pyridin-3-yl)androsta-5,16-dien-3-ol. Abiraterone includes Abretone and ZYTIGA®.

As used herein, “alkyl” refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chain that comprises a fully saturated (no double or triple bonds) hydrocarbon group. The alkyl group may have 1 to 20 carbon atoms (whenever it appears herein, a numerical range such as “1 to 20” refers to each integer in the given range; e.g., “1 to 20 carbon atoms” means that the alkyl group may consist of 1 carbon atom, 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms, etc., up to and including 20 carbon atoms, although the present definition also covers the occurrence of the term “alkyl” where no numerical range is designated). The alkyl group may also be a medium size alkyl having 1 to 10 carbon atoms. The alkyl group could also be a lower alkyl having 1 to 6 carbon atoms. The alkyl group of the compounds may be designated as “C₁-C₄ alkyl” or similar designations. By way of example only, “C₁-C₄ alkyl” indicates that there are one to four carbon atoms in the alkyl chain, i.e., the alkyl chain is selected from methyl, ethyl, propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and t-butyl. Typical alkyl groups include, but are in no way limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tertiary butyl, pentyl and hexyl. The alkyl group may be substituted or unsubstituted.

As used herein, “alkenyl” refers to an alkyl group that contains in the straight or branched hydrocarbon chain one or more double bonds. An alkenyl group may be unsubstituted or substituted.

As used herein, the term “altraric acid” refers to altraric acid and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including D-altraric acid and (S)-2-methylpiperazine. Altraric acid includes (2S,3R,4S,5S)-2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxyhexanedioic acid.

As used herein, the term “aminoglutethimide” refers to aminoglutethimide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including CYTADREN®, aminoglutethimide, d-Aminoglutethimide L-tartrate, and R-(+)-p-Aminoglutethimide (+)-tartrate salt. Aminoglutethimide includes (RS)-3-(4-aminophenyl)-3-ethyl-piperidine-2,6-dione.

As used herein, the term “ARN-509” refers to ARN-509 and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including JNJ-56021927 and A52. ARN-509 includes 4-(7-(6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-3-yl)-8-oxo-6-thioxo-5,7-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-5-yl)-2-fluoro-N-methylbenzamide).

As used herein, “aralkyl” refers to an aryl group connected, as a substituent, via a lower alkylene group. The lower alkylene and aryl group of an aralkyl may be substituted or unsubstituted. Examples include but are not limited to benzyl, phenylalkyl, and naphthylalkyl. An aralkyl group may be substituted or unsubstituted.

As used herein, “aralkyloxy” refers to an aryl group connected, as a substituent, via a lower alkoxy group. Examples include but are not limited to benzyloxy, phenylalkyloxy, and naphthylalkyloxy. An aralkyloxy group may be substituted or unsubstituted.

As used herein, “aryl” refers to a carbocyclic (all carbon) monocyclic or multicyclic aromatic ring system (including fused ring systems where two carbocyclic rings share a chemical bond) that has a fully delocalized pi-electron system throughout all the rings. The number of carbon atoms in an aryl group can vary. For example, the aryl group can be a C₆-C₁₄ aryl group, a C₆-C₁₀ aryl group, or a C₆ aryl group. Examples of aryl groups include, but are not limited to, phenyl, tolyl, xylyl, mesityl, naphthyl, ethylphenyl, t-butylphenyl, and isopropylphenyl, benzene, naphthalene and azulene. An aryl group may be substituted or unsubstituted.

As used herein, the term “bicalutamide” refers to bicalutamide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including BICALOX®, CASODEX®, COSUDEX®, Calutide, and Kalumid. Bicalutamide includes N-[4-cyano-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-3-[(4-fluorophenyl)sulfonyl]-2-hydroxy-2-methylpropanamide.

As used herein, the term “buserelin” refers to buserelin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including buserelin acetate. Beserelin includes Bigonist, SUPRADOPIN®, SURFACT®, Profact, Etilamide, and Tiloryth. Buserelin includes (2S)—N-[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-5-(diaminomethylideneamino)-1-[(2S)-2-(ethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-[(2-methylpropan-2-yl)oxy]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide.

As used herein, a “carrier” refers to a compound that facilitates the incorporation of a compound into cells or tissues. Exemplary carriers include, but are not limited to, water, saline, buffered saline, dextrose, glycerol, ethanol, partial glyceride mixtures of saturated and unsaturated vegetable fatty acids, waxes, polyethylene-polyoxypropylene-block polymers, starches such as corn starch and potato starch, and combinations thereof.

As used herein, the term “cetrorelix” refers to cetrorelix and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including cetrorelix acetate. Cetrorelix includes acetyl-D-3-(2′-naphtyl)-alanine-D-4-chlorophenylalanine-D-3-(3′-pyridyl)-alanine-L-serine-L-tyrosine-D-citrulline-L-leucine-L-arginine-L-proline-D-alanine-amide.

As used herein, the term “cyproterone acetate” refers to cyproterone acetate and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including Androcur and CYPROSTAT®. Cyproterone acetate can include 1R,3aS,3bR,7aR,8aS,8bS,8cS,10aS)-1-acetyl-5-chloro-8b,10a-dimethyl-7-oxo-1,2,3,3a,3b,7,7a,8,8a,8b,8c,9,10,10a-tetradecahydrocyclopenta-[a]cyclopropa-[g]phenanthren-1-yl acetate.

The term “degarelix”, as used herein, refers to degarelix and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including degarelix acetate. Degarelix includes FIRMAGON® (including FIRMAGON® injection). Degarelix includes D-alaninamide, N-acetyl-3-(2-naphthalenyl)-D-alanyl-4-chloro-D-phenylalanyl-3-(3-pyridinyl)-D-alanyl-L-seryl-4-[[[(4S)-hexahydro-2,6-dioxo-4pyrimidinyl]carbonyl]amino]-L-phenylalanyl-4-[(aminocarbonyl)amino]-D-phenylalanyl-L-leucyl-N6-(1-methylethyl)-L-lysyl-L-prolyl.

As used herein, the term “deslorelin” refers to deslorelin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including deslorelin acetate. Deslorelin includes SucroMate™ Equine, Ovuplant, and SUPRELORIN®. Deslorelin includes (2S)—N-[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2R)-1-[[(2S)-1-[[(2S)-5-(diaminomethylideneamino)-1-[(2S)-2-(ethylcarbamoyl)pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-4-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-hydroxy-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]amino]-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)-1-oxopropan-2-yl]-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide.

As used herein, the term “diethylstilbestrol” refers to diethylstilbestrol and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including diethylstilbestrol disodium, diethylstilbestrol diphosphate, and Diethylstilbestrol dipropionate. Diethylstilboestrol includes DISTILBENE®, Stilbestrol, and Stilphostrol. Diethylstilboestrol includes 4,4′-(3E)-hex-3-ene-3,4-diyldiphenol.

As used herein, the terms “3,3′-diindolylmethane” and “DIM” refer to 3,3′-diindolylmethane and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including 5,5′-dichloro-diindolylmethane, dinitro-diindolylmethane, and N,N′-dimethoxy-diindolylmethane. DIM can include 3,3′-methanediylbis(1H-indole), 3-(1H-Indol-3-ylmethyl)-1H-indole, and 3,3′-methylenebis-1H-indole.

As used herein, a “diluent” refers to an ingredient in a pharmaceutical composition that lacks pharmacological activity but may be pharmaceutically necessary or desirable. For example, a diluent may be used to increase the bulk of a potent drug whose mass is too small for manufacture and/or administration. It may also be a liquid for the dissolution of a drug to be administered by injection, ingestion or inhalation. A common form of diluent in the art is a buffered aqueous solution such as, without limitation, phosphate buffered saline that mimics the composition of human blood.

As used herein, the term “dutasteride” refers to dutasteride and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including dutasteride acetate. Dutasteride includes Avodart (including Avodart oral). Dutasteride includes (5α,17β)-N-{2,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl}-3-oxo-4-azaandrost-1-ene-17-carboxamide.

As used herein, the term “enzalutamide” refers to enzalutamide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Enzalutamide includes Xtandi (including Xtandi oral). Enzalutamide includes (4-(3-(4-cyano-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxoimidazolidin-1-yl)-2-fluoro-N-methylbenzamide).

As used herein, the term “epristeride” refers to epristeride and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Epristeride includes SKF-105,657 and ONO-9302. Epristeride includes (17-(tert-butylcarbamoyl)androsta-3,5-diene-3-carboxylic acid), 7β-(tert-butylaminocarbonyl)androsta-3,5-diene-3-carboxylic acid, (17β)-17-[[(1, 1-dimethylethyl)amino]carbonyl]androsta-3, 5-diene-3-carboxylic acid, and (17b)-17-[[(1,1-dimethylethyl)amino]carbonyl]-androsta-3,5-diene-3-carboxylic acid.

As used herein, the term “equol” refers to equol and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including (R,S) equol 4′-sulfate sodium salt. Equol includes (S)-equol and (R)-equol. Equol includes (3S)-3-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-7-chromanol, (4′,7-isoflavandiol), 7,4′-dihydroxy-isoflavan, 7-hydroxy-3-(4′-hydroxyphenyl)-chroman, and 3,4-dihydro-3-[4-(sulfooxy)phenyl]-2H-1-benzopyran-7-ol sodium salt.

The term “ethylstilbestrol”, as used herein, refers to ethylstilbestrol and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Ethylstilboestrol includes BRN 3136095 and alpha-ethyl-4,4′-stilbenediol.

As used herein, an “excipient” refers to an inert substance that is added to a pharmaceutical composition to provide, without limitation, bulk, consistency, stability, binding ability, lubrication, disintegrating ability etc., to the composition. A “diluent” is a type of excipient.

As used herein, the term “finasteride” refers to finasteride and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Finasteride includes MK-906, Proscar and Propecia. Finasteride includes N-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-3-oxo-(5α,17β)-4-azaandrost-1-ene-17-carboxamide.

As used herein, the term “flutamide” refers to flutamide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including hydroxyflutamide and 2-amino-5-nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenol. Flutamide includes Eulexin, Flutamin, Cytomid, Flutamide USP₂₅, Cebatrol, Niftholide, and Niftolid. Flutamide includes 2-methyl-N-[4-nitro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-propanamide.

As used herein, the term “fosfestrol” refers to fosfestrol and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including fosfestrol sodium and fosfestrol tetrasodium. Fosfestrol includes fosfestrol, fosfestrolo, Honvan, and Stilbostatin. Fosfestrol includes [4-[4-(4-phosphonooxyphenyl)hex-3-en-3-yl]phenoxy]phosphonic acid and diethylstilbestrol diphosphate.

As used herein, the term “galeterone” refers to galeterone and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Galeterone includes Tokai TOK-001 and VN/124-1. Galeterone includes (17-(1H-benzimidazol-1-yl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol).

As used herein, the term “ganirelix” refers to ganirelix and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including ganirelix acetate and ganirelix diacetate. Ganirelix includes Antagon, Cetrotide, Ganirelix, and Orgalutran. Ganirelix includes (2S)-1-[(2S)-2-[[(2S)-2-[[(2R)-2-[[(2R)-2-[[(2S)-2-[[(2R)-2-[[(2R)-2-[[(2R)-2-acetamido-3-naphthalen-2-ylpropanoyl]amino]-3-(4-chlorophenyl)propanoyl]amino]-3-pyridin-3-ylpropanoyl]amino]-3-hydroxypropanoyl]amino]-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propanoyl]amino]-6-[bis(ethylamino)methylideneamino]hexanoyl]-amino]-4-methyl-pentanoyl]amino]-6-[bis(ethylamino)methylideneamino]hexanoyl]-N-[(2R)-1-amino-1-oxopropan-2-yl]pyrrolidine-2-carboxamide.

As used herein, the term “genisterin” refers to genisterin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Genisterin includes 5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-benzopyran-4-one, and 5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)chromen-4-one.

As used herein, the term “18β-glycyrrhetinic acid” refers to 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid and glycyrrhetic acid, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including Acetoxolone, Enoxolone, carbenoxolone, and 3β-Hydroxy-11-oxo-18β,20β-olean-12-en-29-oic acid. 18β-Glycyrrhetinic acid can include (2S,4aS,6aS,6bR,8aR,10S,12aS,12bR,14bR)-10-hydroxy-2,4a,6a,6b,9,9,12a-heptamethyl-13-oxo-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,6a,6b,7,8,8a,9,10,11,12,12a,12b,13,14b-icosahydropicene-2-carboxylic acid.

As used herein, the term “goserelin” refers to goserelin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including goserelin acetate. Goserelin includes Zoladex. Goserelin includes N-(21-((1H-indol-3-yl)methyl)-1,1-diamino-12-(tert-butoxymethyl)-6-(2-(2-carbamoylhydrazinecarbonyl)cyclopentanecarbonyl)-15-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-18-(hydroxymethyl)-25-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)-9-isobutyl-8,11,14,17,20,23-hexaoxo-2,7,10,13,16,19,22-heptaazapentacos-1-en-24-yl)-5-oxopyrrolidine-2-carboxamide.

As used herein, the term “gossypol” refers to gossypol and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including gossypol acetate and acetyl gossypol. Gossypol includes AT-101, ApoG2, B-gossypol, and D-gossypol. Gossypol includes 2,2′-bis-(formyl-1,6,7-trihydroxy-5-isopropyl-3-methylnaphthalene).

The term “halogen” as used herein, means any one of the radio-stable atoms of column 7 of the Periodic Table of the Elements, such as, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.

As used herein, the term “histrelin” refers to histrelin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including histrelin acetate. Histrelin includes Vantas and Supprelin LA. Histrelin includes 5-oxo-L-prolyl-L-histidyl-L-tryptophyl-L-seryl-L-tyrosyl-1-benzyl-D-histidyl-L-leucyl-N5-(diaminomethylene)-L-ornithyl-N-ethyl-L-prolinamide.

As used herein, the term “hormone therapy agent” refers to anti-androgens (including steroidal anti-androgens and non-steroidal anti-androgens), estrogens, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists, and LHRH antagonists, as well as, hormonal ablation therapy. Some hormone therapy agents are compounds that inhibit the synthesis and/or conversion of testosterone, such as orteronel (“testosterone synthesis inhibitors”); whereas, other hormone therapy agents bind to the androgen receptor and thereby inhibit the binding of testosterone to the androgen receptor, such as Casodex (“androgen receptor inhibitor”). Exemplary hormone therapy agents include, but are not limited to, cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.

As used herein, the term “izonsteride” refers to izonsteride and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Izonsteride includes ((4aR,10bR)-8-[(4-ethyl-1,3-benzothiazol-2-yl)sulfanyl]-4,10b-dimethyl-1,4,4a,5,6,10b-hexahydrobenzo[f]quinolin-3 (2H)-one).

As used herein, the term “ketoconazole” refers to ketoconazole and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including ketoconazole oxalate. Ketoconazole includes Nizoral, Extina, Xolegel, and Kuric. Ketoconazole includes (1-[4-(4-{[(2R,4S)-2-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-2-(1H-imidazol-1-ylmethyl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl]methoxy}phenyepiperazin-1-yl]ethan-1-one).

The term “L-39”, as used herein, refers to L-39 and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. L-39 includes L-39 cpd. L-39 includes (17-(5′-Isoxazolyl)androsta-4,16-dien-3-one).

As used herein, the term “leuprolide” refers to leuprolide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including leuprolide acetate. Leuprolide includes leuprorelin, Lupron (including Lupron injection and Lupron depot), Viadur, Eligard, and Leupromer. Leuprolide includes 5-oxo-L-prolyl-L-histidyl-L-tryptophyl-L-seryl-L-tyrosyl-D-leucyl-L-leucyl-L-arginyl-N-ethyl-Lprolinamide acetate.

As used herein, the term “megestrol acetate” refers to megestrol acetate and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Megestrol acetate includes Megace and Megace ES. Megestrol acetate includes 17α-(acetyloxy)6-methylpregna-4,6-diene-3,20-dione.

As used herein, the term “N-butylbenzenesulfonamide” refers to N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. N-butylbenzenesulfonamide includes Plasthall and Plastonomoll. N-butylbenzenesulfonamide includes N-n-butylamide, N-butylbenzenesulfonamide, benzenesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid butyl amide, and N-butylbenzenesulfonamide.

As used herein, the term “nilutamide” refers to nilutamide and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Nilutamide includes Nilandron and Anandron. Nilutamide includes 5,5-dimethyl-3-[4-nitro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]imidazolidine-2,4-dione.

As used herein, the term “nafarelin” refers to nafarelin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including nafarelin acetate. Nafarelin includes Nacenyl, Synarel, Synrelina, Nafarelina, and (D-2-Nal6)-LHRH Nafarelin. Nafarelin includes (2R)—N-[(2R)-5-carbamimidamido-1-[(2S)-2-[(carbamoylmethyl)-carbamoyl]-pyrrolidin-1-yl]-1-oxopentan-2-yl]-2-[(2R)-2-[(2R)-2-[(2R)-3-hydroxy-2-[(2S)-2-[(2S)-3-(1H-imidazol-4-yl)-2-{[(2R)-5-oxopyrrolidin-2-yl]formamido}propanamido]-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)propanamido]propanamido]-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanamido]-3-(naphthalen-2-yl)propanamido]-4-methylpentanamide.

Whenever a group is described as being “optionally substituted” that group may be unsubstituted or substituted with one or more of the indicated substituents. Likewise, when a group is described as being “unsubstituted or substituted” if substituted, the substituent may be selected from one or more the indicated substituents. If no substituents are indicated, it is meant that the indicated “optionally substituted” or “substituted” group may be substituted with one or more group(s) individually and independently selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, cycloalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroalicyclyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, (heteroalicyclyl)alkyl, hydroxy, protected hydroxyl, alkoxy, aryloxy, acyl, mercapto, alkylthio, arylthio, cyano, halogen, thiocarbonyl, O-carbamyl, N-carbamyl, O-thiocarbamyl, N-thiocarbamyl, C-amido, N-amido, S-sulfonamido, N-sulfonamido, C-carboxy, protected C-carboxy, O-carboxy, isocyanato, thiocyanato, isothiocyanato, nitro, silyl, sulfenyl, sulfinyl, sulfonyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, trihalomethanesulfonyl, trihalomethanesulfonamido, amino, mono-substituted amino group and di-substituted amino group, and protected derivatives thereof.

The term “1,4-naphthoquinone analog” refers to a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, R¹², and R¹³ are as defined herein. 1,4-Naphthoquinone analog can also refer to any one or more of the following compounds:

As used herein, the term “orteronel” refers to orteronel and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Orteronel includes TAK-700. Orteronel includes 6-(7-Hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-7-yl)-N-methyl-naphthalene-2-carboxamide.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to a salt of a compound that does not cause significant irritation to an organism to which it is administered and does not abrogate the biological activity and properties of the compound. In some alternatives, the salt is an acid addition salt of the compound. Pharmaceutical salts can be obtained by reacting a compound with inorganic acids such as hydrohalic acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid or hydrobromic acid), sulfuric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid. Pharmaceutical salts can also be obtained by reacting a compound with an organic acid such as aliphatic or aromatic carboxylic or sulfonic acids, for example formic, acetic, succinic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, nicotinic, methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, p-toluensulfonic, salicylic or naphthalenesulfonic acid. Pharmaceutical salts can also be obtained by reacting a compound with a base to form a salt such as an ammonium salt, an alkali metal salt, such as a sodium or a potassium salt, an alkaline earth metal salt, such as a calcium or a magnesium salt, a salt of organic bases such as dicyclohexylamine, N-methyl-D-glucamine, tris(hydroxymethyl)methylamine, C₁-C₇ alkylamine, cyclohexylamine, triethanolamine, ethylenediamine, and salts with amino acids such as arginine and lysine.

It is understood that, in any compound described herein having one or more chiral centers, if an absolute stereochemistry is not expressly indicated, then each center may independently be of R-configuration or S-configuration or a mixture thereof. Thus, the compounds provided herein may be disatereomerically pure, disatereomerically enriched, or may be stereoisomeric mixtures. In addition it is understood that, in any compound described herein having one or more double bond(s) generating geometrical isomers that can be defined as E or Z, each double bond may independently be E or Z a mixture thereof. Likewise, it is understood that, in any compound described, all tautomeric forms are also intended to be included.

The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to a mixture of a compound disclosed herein with other chemical components, such as diluents or carriers. The pharmaceutical composition facilitates administration of the compound to an organism. Pharmaceutical compositions can also be obtained by reacting compounds with inorganic or organic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid and salicylic acid. Pharmaceutical compositions will generally be tailored to the specific intended route of administration.

The term “physiologically acceptable” defines a carrier, diluent or excipient that does not abrogate the biological activity and properties of the compound.

As used herein, the term “prochloraz” refers to prochloraz and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including prochloraz amine, prochloraz copper, prochloraz zinc, and prochloraz manganese salts. Prochloraz includes Pesnatal and JMPR 2001. Prochloraz includes (N-propyl-N-[2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenoxy)-ethyl]imidazole-1-carboxamide) and N-propyl-N-[2-(2,4,6-trichlorophenoxy)ethyl]-1H-imidazole-1-carboxamide.

As used herein, a “subject” refers to an animal that is the object of treatment, observation or experiment. “Animal” includes cold- and warm-blooded vertebrates and invertebrates such as fish, shellfish, reptiles and, in particular, mammals. “Mammal” includes, without limitation, mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, dogs, cats, sheep, goats, cows, horses, primates, such as monkeys, chimpanzees, and apes, and, in particular, humans. In some alternative, the subject is human.

As used herein, the terms “treating,” “treatment,” “therapeutic,” or “therapy” do not necessarily mean total cure or abolition of the disease or condition. Any alleviation of any undesired signs or symptoms of a disease or condition, to any extent can be considered treatment and/or therapy.

The term “therapeutically effective amount” is used to indicate an amount of an active compound, or pharmaceutical agent, that elicits the biological or medicinal response indicated. For example, a therapeutically effective amount of compound can be the amount needed to prevent, alleviate or ameliorate symptoms of disease or prolong the survival of the subject being treated. This response may occur in a tissue, system, animal or human and includes alleviation of the signs or symptoms of the disease being treated. Determination of a therapeutically effective amount is well within the capability of those skilled in the art, in view of the disclosure provided herein. The therapeutically effective amount of the compounds disclosed herein required as a dose will depend on the route of administration, the type of animal, including human, being treated, and the physical characteristics of the specific animal under consideration. The dose can be tailored to achieve a desired effect, but will depend on such factors as weight, diet, concurrent medication and other factors which those skilled in the medical arts will recognize.

As used herein, the term “triptorelin” refers to triptorelin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including triptorelin acetate and triptorelin pamoate. Triptorelin includes Trelstar, Decapeptyl, Diphereline, Gonapeptyl, and Variopeptyl. Triptorelin includes 5-oxo-D-prolyl-L-histidyl-L-tryptophyl-L-seryl-L-tyrosyl-3-(1H-indol-2-yl)-L-alanylleucyl-L-arginyl-L-prolylglycinamide.

As used herein, the term “turosteride” refers to turosteride and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Turosteride includes FCE-26073. Turosteride includes ((4aR,4bS,6aS,7S,9aS,9bS,11aR)-1,4a,6a-trimethyl-2-oxo-N-(propan-2-yl)-N-(propan-2-ylcarbamoyl)hexadecahydro-1H-indeno[5,4-f]quinoline-7-carboxamide), and 1-(4-methyl-3-oxo-4-aza-5-alpha-androstane-17-beta-carbonyl)-1,3-diisopropylurea.

As used herein, the term “vinclozolin” refers to vinclozolin and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Vinclozolin includes Ronilan, Curalan, Vorlan, and Touche. Vinclozolin includes ((RS)-3-(3,5-dichlorophenyl)-5-methyl-5-vinyloxazolidine-2,4-dione).

The term “VT-464”, as used herein, refers to VT-464 and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, including VT-464 racemate and VT-464 R enantiomer. VT-464 refers to the non-steroidal selective CYP17A1 inhibitor developed by Viamet Pharmaceuticals.

As used in this specification, whether in a transitional phrase or in the body of the claim, the terms “comprise(s)” and “comprising” are to be interpreted as having an open-ended meaning. That is, the terms are to be interpreted synonymously with the phrases “having at least” or “including at least.” When used in the context of a process, the term “comprising” means that the process includes at least the recited steps, but may include additional steps. When used in the context of a compound, composition or device, the term “comprising” means that the compound, composition or device includes at least the recited features or components, but may also include additional features or components. The section below describes some of the compounds that can be used to treat cancer, or inhibit or delay the growth of cancer cells, especially prostate cancer cells alone or in combination with one or more androgen deprivation therapies (e.g., castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy).

II. Compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV)

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (I), a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and methods of using these compounds with and without a hormone therapy agent, as described herein, to inhibit, delay, treat, or prevent prostate cancer cell growth or prostate cancer in a subject in need thereof. Formula (I):

wherein: R¹ can be —O—R³ or —NR⁴R⁵;

R² can be selected from hydrogen, halogen, and —O—R³;

R³ is an optionally substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is optionally substituted with one to five groups independently selected from —OH, —COOH, —NR⁶R⁷, halogen, nitro, cyano, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy, C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —(C═O)—O—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkyl-N(R⁶)(R⁷), —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl;

R⁴ and R⁵ can be independently selected from hydrogen, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and an optionally substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is optionally substituted with one to five groups independently selected from halogen, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ haloalkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy, C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SO₂N—C(═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —SO₂NH₂;

R⁶ and R⁷ can be independently selected from hydrogen and an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In some alternatives, R¹ can be —O—R³. In some alternatives, R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵. In some alternatives, R² can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R² can be halogen. In some alternatives, R² can be chloro. In some alternatives, R² can be bromo. In some alternatives, R² can be flouro. In some alternatives, R² can be iodo. In some alternatives, R² can be —O—R³.

In some alternatives, R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with one to five groups. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with one group. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with two groups. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with three groups. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with four groups. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with five groups. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted or unsubstituted phenyl group. In some alternatives, R³ can be a substituted or unsubstituted naphthyl group.

In some alternatives, when R³ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group can be substituted with one to five —OH substituents. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group can be substituted with one to five —COOH substituents. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —NR⁶R⁷. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from halogen. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from nitro or cyano. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ alkoxy. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy.

In some alternatives, when R³ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —(C═O)—O—C_(1,6) alkyl. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —C₁₋₆ alkyl-N(R⁶)(R⁷). In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R³ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl.

In some alternatives, R⁴ and R⁵ can be the same. In some alternatives, R⁴ and R⁵ can be different. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with one to five groups. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with one group. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with two groups. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with three groups. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with four groups. In some alternatives, R⁴ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with five groups. In some alternatives the aryl group for R⁴ can be a phenyl group.

In some alternatives, when R⁴ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from flouro, chloro, bromo and iodo. In some alternatives, when R⁴ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, when R⁴ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C_(1,6) haloalkyl. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C_(1,6) alkoxy. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —SO₂N—C(═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁴ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —SO₂NH₂.

In some alternatives, R⁵ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with one to five groups. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with one group. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with two groups. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with three groups. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with four groups. In some alternatives, R⁵ can be a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is substituted with five groups. In some alternatives the aryl group for R⁵ can be a phenyl group.

In some alternatives, when R⁵ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from flouro, chloro, bromo and iodo. In some alternatives, when R⁵ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is optionally substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, when R⁵ is a substituted aryl, the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ haloalkyl. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ alkoxy. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —SO₂N—C(═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁵ is a substituted aryl, wherein the aryl group is substituted with one to five substituents independently selected from —SO₂NH₂.

In some alternatives, R⁶ and R⁷ can be the same. In some alternatives, R⁶ and R⁷ can be different. In some alternatives, R⁶ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R⁶ can be an unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁶ can be a substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁷ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R⁷ can be an unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁷ can be a substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. Examples of optionally substituted C₁₋₆-alkyls include optionally substituted variants of the following: methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl (branched and straight-chained), and hexyl (branched and straight-chained).

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O-phenyl and R² can be hydrogen. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O-naphthyl and R² can be hydrogen.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be a substituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five halogens. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 2,4,6-trifluorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-chlorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 3,5-difluorophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 3-methylphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five substituents, wherein the substituents are independently selected from halogen and C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-chloro-2-methylphenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-chloro-3-methylphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-acetamidophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-hydroxyphenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-nitrophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —C₁₋₆ alkyl-N(R⁶)(R⁷) groups, and R⁶ and R⁷ are unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ alkoxy groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-methoxyphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 4-(benzyloxy)phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five substituents, wherein the substituents are independently selected from halogen and C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 2-benzyl-4-chlorophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five substituents, wherein the substituents are independently selected from halogen and C₁₋₆ alkoxy. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be hydrogen, and R³ can be 2-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be halogen, and R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be bromo, and R³ can be phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be halogen, and R³ can be a substituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be halogen, and R³ can be a phenyl substituted with one to five halogens. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be bromo, and R³ can be 2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be halogen, and R³ can be a phenyl substituted with one to five —(C═O)—O—C₁₋₆ alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —O—R³, R² can be bromo, and R³ can be 2-(methoxycarbonyl)-phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl wherein the unsubstituted aryl R³ of R¹ is different from the unsubstituted aryl R³ of R². In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl wherein the unsubstituted aryl R³ can be the same for R¹ and R². In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be a substituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be a substituted aryl wherein the substituted aryl R³ of R¹ is different from the substituted aryl R³ of R². In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be a substituted aryl wherein the substituted aryl R³ can be the same for R¹ and R². In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five halogens. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 2,4,6-trifluorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-chlorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be perfluorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 3,5-difluorophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five substituents, wherein the substituents are independently selected from halogen and C₁-C₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-chloro-2-methylphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-acetamidophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-hydroxyphenyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-aminophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-nitrophenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 3-methylphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ alkoxy groups. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-methoxyphenyl. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy groups. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-(benzyloxy)phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ and R² can each be —O—R³, and R³ can be 4-((2-chloroethyl)carbamoyloxy)phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be an unsubstituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be a substituted aryl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five halogens. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be 3,5-difluorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be 4-chlorophenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be p-tolyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ haloalkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be 4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be 4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —SO₂N—C(═O)—C_(1,6) alkyl groups. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —SO₂N—C(═O)—CH₃. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —SO₂NH₂.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be a C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be hydrogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be 4-trifluoromethoxyphenyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be halogen, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be chloro, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be halogen, R⁴ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be chloro, R⁴ can be acetyl, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be an unsubstituted aryl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be phenyl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be a substituted aryl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five halogens, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be 4-chlorophenyl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be 3,5-difluorophenyl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl groups, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be 4-acetamidophenyl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₁₋₆ alkoxy groups, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be 4-methoxyphenyl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be phenyl substituted with one to five C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy groups, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives R¹ can be —NR⁴R⁵, R² can be —O—R³, R³ can be 4-(benzyloxy)phenyl, R⁴ can be hydrogen, and R⁵ can be acetyl.

Examples of compound of Formula (I) include, but are not limited to the following:

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (II), a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and methods of using these compounds with and without a hormone therapy agent, as described herein, to inhibit, delay, ameliorate, treat, or prevent prostate cancer cell growth or prostate cancer in a subject in need thereof. Formula (II):

wherein: R⁸ can be hydrogen or C₁₋₆ alkyl;

R⁹ can be hydrogen or C₁₋₆ alkyl;

R¹⁰ can be selected from hydrogen, —OH, and —COOH; and

n is an integer selected from 1 to 6.

In some alternatives, R⁸ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R⁸ can be C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R⁹ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R⁹ can be C_(1,6) alkyl. In some alternatives, R¹⁰ can be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R¹⁰ can be —OH. In some alternatives, R¹⁰ can be —COOH.

In some alternatives R⁸ can be C₁₋₆ alkyl, R⁹ can be C₁₋₆ alkyl, R¹⁰ can be —OH, and n=1. In some alternatives R⁸ can be methyl, R⁹ can be methyl, R¹⁰ can be —OH, and n=1.

Examples of compound of Formula (II) include, but are not limited to the following:

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (III), a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and methods of using these compounds with and without a hormone therapy agent, as described herein, to inhibit, delay, treat, or prevent prostate cancer cell growth or prostate cancer in a subject in need thereof. Formula (III):

wherein: R¹¹ can be selected from C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ haloalkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl.

In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be methyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be isopropyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be C₁₋₆ haloalkyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be 4-iodobutyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be 4-iodopropyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be —(C═O)-methyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl. In some alternatives, R¹¹ can be —(C═O)-iodomethyl.

Examples of compound of Formula (III) include, but are not limited to the following:

Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a compound of Formula (IV), a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and methods of using these compounds with and without a hormone therapy agent, as described herein, to inhibit, delay, treat, or prevent prostate cancer cell growth or prostate cancer in a subject in need thereof. Formula (IV):

wherein: R¹² and R¹³ can be independently selected from hydrogen, halogen, C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —NH—(C═O)—(C₁₋₆ alkyl).

In some alternatives, R¹² and R¹³ can be the same. In some alternatives, R¹² and R¹³ can be different. In some alternatives, R¹² and R¹³ can each be hydrogen. In some alternatives, R¹² and R¹³ can each be halogen. In some alternatives, R¹² can be bromo and R¹³ can be bromo. In some alternatives, R¹² and R¹³ can each be C_(1,6) alkyl. In some alternatives, R¹² and R¹³ can each be —NH—(C═O)—(C₁₋₆ alkyl). In some alternatives, R¹² can be —NH—(C═O)-methyl and R¹³ can be —NH—(C═O)-methyl.

Examples of compound of Formula (IV) include, but are not limited to the following:

The section below describes some of the conventional therapies that can be used to inhibit, ameliorate, or delay prostate cancer cell growth and/or treat, ameliorate or prevent prostate cancer. It should be understood that the inventive therapies described herein can be performed with and without any of the conventional therapies for prostate cancer including any one or more of the therapies described in the following section.

III. Prostate Cancer

There were an estimated 192,280 new cases of prostate cancer diagnosed in the U.S. in 2009 and an estimated 27,360 deaths. About 90% of patients with advanced disease will develop bone metastases, associated with severe pain, loss of mobility, and spinal cord compression. Other affected organs may include the liver, lungs and brain. Advanced prostate cancer is resistant to hormone therapy, radiation and conventional chemotherapy. Although the 5-year survival rate is close to 100% for local disease, it drops to 30% for advanced cancer.

In the initial stages, prostate tumor growth is androgen dependent. Androgens are used by prostate cancer cells for both proliferation as well as regulation, and are vital for maintaining the growth and survival of the cancer cell. The main androgen that circulates is testosterone, which is mainly produced in the testes. Extragonadal sources of androgen synthesis do, however, exist and may play a role in the development of castration-resistant forms of prostate cancer. Generally, androgen dependent prostate cancer therapy focuses on minimizing testicular synthesis of androgens with luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (“LHRH”) agonists or antagonists. Some therapies also focus on modulating the androgen receptor itself, or its downstream signaling pathway.

Androgen dependent prostate cancer will eventually progress into castration-resistant prostate cancer (“CRPC”). Although these patients are “androgen insensitive,” researchers have discovered that androgen-responsive genes are still expressed, implying that the androgen-receptor signaling pathway may still be an important target in CRPC patients. Schweizer et al., Therapeutic Advances in Urology, 4(4), 167-178.

There have been some advances in the treatment of prostate cancer recently, including new surgical approaches and improvements in radiotherapy. For example:

1) In 1986, surgeons developed a technique (using da Vinci Prostatectomy) that allowed the removal of the prostate while minimizing nerve damage, thereby decreasing adverse side effects.

2) In addition, clinical researchers improved a long-established radiotherapy technique known as brachytherapy, which involves the implantation of a small amount of radioactive material (seeds) into the prostate. This radiation therapy method is an effective treatment for early-stage prostate cancer.

3) There have also been advances in hormonal therapy for prostate cancer including the development of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists, which inhibit the ability of the pituitary gland to stimulate the testes to make testosterone.

4) Advances have also been made in chemotherapy for prostate cancer. In 2004, results from two large NCI-sponsored clinical trials showed that use of the drug docetaxel could prolong the survival of men who had advanced prostate cancer which no longer responded to hormonal therapy.

Unfortunately, should the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level remain above zero after radical prostatectomy is performed, with conventional therapy or with advanced therapy using da Vinci Prostatectomy, this indicates that the prostate cancer has spread outside the capsule, i.e., disseminated disease, and to date, there is no curable treatment for this.

Thus, all current hormonal, as well as, chemotherapy treatment regimens for such disseminated androgen dependent prostate cancers are palliative. Subsequently, even if there have been advances in the treatment of prostate cancer, finding new strategies for treatment of disseminated disease remains a crucial challenge. The section below provides more details on the use of compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) to inhibit, ameliorate, or delay the growth of cancer cells, in particular prostate cancer cells.

IV. Compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) as Anticancer Agents

The compounds disclosed herein, such as compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV), have significant and unexpected anti-cancer properties. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is contemplated that the primary mechanism of cytotoxic action of compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) is due to redox-cycling and electrophilic arylation. Such compounds can be reduced by electron transfer from flavoprotein to a semiquinone radical, which can, in turn, reduce oxygen to superoxide. The resulting superoxide can consequently be converted into hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and/or peroxynitrite, all of which are highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) with potent cytotoxic and tumoricidial effects.

While still not wishing to be bound by theory, an additional antitumor mechanism of compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) can involve direct arylation of intracellular thiols leading to depletion of glutathione (GSH). Depletion of GSH may ultimately result in alkylation of cellular macromolecules and in their inactivation. Moreover, it has been shown that low dose concentrations of a naphthoquinone analog (5 μmol/L) can inhibit expression of multiple molecular targets, including protein kinase Cq (PKCq), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), AKT, activation of transcription factors activator protein-1 (AP-1), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) in prostate carcinoma cells. Such activities may contribute to the tumoricidial effects of compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV).

Moreover, while still not wishing to be bound by theory, an additional antitumor mechanism of compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) can involve inhibition of microtubule polymerization and binding to tubulin. Because one of the defining characteristics of cancer cells is a significantly increased rate of cell cycle entry and/or mitosis, cancer cells are more vulnerable to agents that affect microtubule polymerization than normal cells. It has been shown that a naphthoquinone analog recognizes the colchicine binding site of tubulin and also inhibits in vitro tubulin polymerization. See Acharya et al., Biochemistry 2008, 47(3), 7838-45.

Compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) can result in slower growth of androgen independent prostate cancer, and that the mechanism behind the slower growth may be due to apoptosis of prostate tumor cells. Compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) can induce cell cycle entry, mitosis, and/or apoptosis of androgen-dependent cancer cells.

It is contemplated that several compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) have anti-cancer activity and that this anti-cancer activity, especially with respect to prostate cancer, can be significantly and unexpectedly improved (e.g., synergy can be obtained) when the compounds are provided in conjunction with a blockade of testosterone/androgen/DHT (e.g., castration or a hormone treatment therapy, such as hormonal ablation). For example, it is believed that the administration of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) to a subject in need thereof will effectively inhibit the growth of prostate cancer cells and thereby reduce the incidence of fatal prostate cancer. The combination of such a compound with an antioxidant, such as ascorbic acid, alpha lipoic acid, n-acetyl cysteine (NAC), lycopene, tocopherol, tocotrienol, or others may also be beneficial. The combination of such a compound and mitomycin C can also be beneficial in treating subjects with advanced solid tumors, advanced lung cancer, and advanced gastrointestinal cancer. By administering a combination of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) and an antioxidant or plurality of antioxidants, such as vitamin C, to subjects having prostate cancer, it is contemplated that a reduction in tumor cell numbers and PSA (prostate cancer specific antigen) will be obtained.

Alternatively or in addition, it is contemplated that several compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) have anti-cancer activity and that this anti-cancer activity, especially with respect to prostate cancer, can be significantly improved (e.g., synergy can be obtained) when the compounds are provided in conjunction with certain hormonal therapy agents, described in more detail below. It is believed that compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) interact with the androgen receptor or heat shock proteins that are in communication with the androgen receptor. Accordingly, it is preferred that compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) are provided in combination or in co-administration with a testosterone synthesis inhibitor that does not interact with or bind to the androgen receptor (e.g., a testosterone synthesis inhibitor that does not bind to the androgen receptor, such as orteronel or VT-464).

It is contemplated herein that a significantly improved inhibition of prostate cancer cell growth can be obtained when castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy are provided during the time a patient receives the combination of antioxidant (e.g., ascorbic acid) with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV). Provided herein is an improved method for treating a subject suffering from prostate cancer with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) and androgen ablation therapy to subjects with PSA values above zero after radical prostatectomy, i.e., when they have androgen-dependent disseminated disease. Today there is no cure for this and patients currently receive only palliative treatment, including hormone therapy alone.

It is contemplated that the compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) are highly oxidative and induce oxidative stress in cells. Accordingly, such compounds can be used to inhibit or ameliorate prostate cancer cell growth and that a significantly improved inhibition or amelioration of prostate cancer cell growth can be obtained when castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy are provided before, during, and/or after the time a patient receives such compounds.

It is contemplated that a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) can be used to inhibit or ameliorate prostate cancer cell growth and that a significantly improved inhibition or amelioration of prostate cancer cell growth can be obtained when castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy are provided before, during, and/or after the time a patient receives the compound.

As mentioned above, although providing a subject that has cancer (e.g., prostate cancer) with one or more compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) alone or in a combination of compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) can inhibit the growth of cancerous cells, a significantly improved inhibition of cancer cell growth (e.g., prostate cancer cell growth) can be obtained by providing one or more of the compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV), separately or in a mixture, co-administration, or combination, in conjunction with a therapy that reduces the androgen levels of the patient and/or disrupts androgen receptor signaling (e.g., castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy). That is, some alternatives include methods of inhibiting cancer cell growth (e.g., prostate cancer cell growth or progression of prostate cancer disease) or treating or preventing a cancer (e.g., prostate cancer), wherein a subject having a cancer (e.g., prostate cancer) is provided one or more compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) (e.g., 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione) while reducing the amount of androgens in the subject (e.g., providing castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy). Optionally, the inhibition of cancer (e.g., prostate cancer) or a marker thereof (e.g., PSA) is evaluated during or after the treatment (e.g., after the combination of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) and hormone therapy is provided). Stated differently, some alternatives include a combination of one or more of the compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV), formulated for administration separately or together, and an androgen deprivation therapy (e.g., castration, hormonal castration, hormonal ablation, or hormone therapy) for use in inhibiting, ameliorating or delaying the growth of prostate cancer cells or treating or preventing prostate cancer. The section below describes some of the approaches that can be used to deplete the levels of androgen in the subject so as to provide the treatments and treatment protocols described above.

V. Hormone Therapy

Hormone therapy for treating prostate cancer, or inhibiting or delaying prostate cancer cell growth, can also be called androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), chemical castration, or androgen ablation therapy. Androgens can fuel the growth of prostatic cells, including both healthy prostatic cells and cancerous prostatic cells. In some alternatives, a subject suffering from prostate cancer is provided with a hormone therapy agent that reduces the subject's androgen levels.

Without wishing to be bound by theory, FIG. 1 illustrates the steroid/androgen synthesis pathway. In FIG. 1, cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone, which then undergoes conversion along the mineralcortioid biosynthesis pathway to progesterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone, and corticosterone (and then to 18-hydroxycorticosterone and aldosterone, not pictured). The conversion to corticosterone occurs via the enzyme 11β-hydroxylase. 11β-hydroxylase is also featured in the glucocorticoid pathway. For the glucocorticoid biosynthesis pathway, pregnenolone or progesterone is converted via the 17α-hydroxylase activity of cytochrome P450-17 (“CYP17”) to either 17α-hydroxypregnenolone or 17α-hydroxyprogesterone. 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is converted to 11-deoxycortisol, which in turn is converted to cortisol by 11β-hydroxylase. CYP17 is also featured in the androgen biosynthesis pathway. CYP17, utilizing its 17,20-lyase activity, converts 17α-hydroxypregnenolone to to dehydroepiandrosterone (“DHEA”) and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to adostenedione. Adostenedione, in turn, is converted to testosterone by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, while testosterone is converted to dihydrotestosterone (“DHT”) by 5α-reductase.

In some alternatives, a hormonal therapy agent is provided to a patient to selectively inhibit the androgen biosynthesis pathway. Selective inhibition of this pathway is desirable given that a patient receiving such an agent will not require hormone replacement therapy. Hormone replacement therapy is often required when non-selective hormonal therapy agents, such as arbiraterone are provided, resulting in the inhibition of mineralocorticoid biosynthesis and/or glucocorticoid biosynthesis. Such inhibition may afford side effects, causes the patient to take additional drugs, reduce patient compliance, and/or impair the patient's quality of life. Additionally, it is contemplated that some non-selective hormonal therapy agents, such as arbiraterone, might be expected to interfere with or counteract the anti-cancer potential of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs, for example, by competing with 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs for binding to the androgen receptor or heat shock proteins associated with the androgen receptor. Therefore, it is surprising that the naphthoquinione analogs disclosed herein can be used in combination with arbiraterone.

In some alternatives, a hormonal therapy agent is provided to a patient to selectively inhibit the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17. Such inhibition will result in the selective decrease of DHEA and andostenedione production, while not affecting mineralocorticoid biosynthesis and glucocorticoid biosynthesis. Indeed, selectivity targeting CYP17's 17,20-lyase activity, while leaving the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17 relatively undisturbed should afford limited side effects and be less likely to require the concomitant administration of a hormone replacement, such as prednisone.

Inhibitors of 17,20-lyase activity of cytochrome P450-17 (“CYP-17”) are known in the art. Steroid-type inhibitors of 17,20-lyase activity are disclosed in, for example, WO 92/15404, WO 93/20097, EP-A 288053, and EP-A 413270, such compounds being incorporated herein by reference. Non-steroid-type compounds are disclosed in, for example, in WO94/27989, WO96/14090, WO97/00257; WO95/09157; U.S. Pat. No. 5,491,161; WO99/18075; WO99/54309; WO03/027085; and EP0724591, such compounds being expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Additional compounds include, but are not limited to, compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,236,962; U.S. Pat. No. 8,263,635; and U.S. Patent Application No. 20100305078; the compounds described therein being expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

Specific examples of selective 17,20-lyase inhibitors for use in certain alternatives include 6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-2-naphthamide; 6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-N-methyl-2-naphthamide; N-ethyl-6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-2-naphthamide; N-cyclopropyl-6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-2-naphthamide; 6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-N-isopropyl-2-naphthamide; N,N-diisopropyl-6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-2-naphthamide; 6-[1-hydroxy-1-(1-methyl-1H-imidazol-5-yl)ethyl]-N-methyl-naphthalene-2-carboxamide; 6-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-N-methyl-2-naphthamide; and 6-(7-hydroxy-6,7-dihydro-6,6-dimethyl-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazole-7-yl)-N-isopropyl-2-naphthamide. See Kaku et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. (2011) 19, 6383-99.

Moreover, preferred examples of selective 17,20-lyase inhibitors include orteronel and VT-464. See Kaku et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. (2011) 19, 6383-99; Eisner et al. J. Clin. Oncol. “VT-464: A novel, selective inhibitor of P450c17(CYP17)-17,20 lyase for castration-refractory prostate cancer (CRPC).

One of skill in the art can readily determine additional examples of selective 17,20-lyase inhibitors by screening inhibitors of CYP17 for both 17,20-lyase inhibition and hydroxylase inhibition, such as 17α-hydroxylase inhibition. In some alternatives, a compound is a selective inhibitor if there is a 5-fold difference between lyase and hydroxylase inhibition. In other alternatives, a selective inhibitor will have an inhibition that is at least or equal to a 10, 20, 30, 50, or 100-fold difference or any fold difference in between these numbers. Methods to determine selective inhibition are known in the art.

In some alternatives, a hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix or any combination thereof.

In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of enzulatomide; ARN-509; vinclozolin; galeterone; ketoconazole; L-39; VT-464; orteronel; aminoglutethimide; prochloraz; dutasteride; izonsteride; turosteride; epristeride; genisterin; gossypol; equol; 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid; altraric acid; N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide; and 3,3′-diindolylmethane or any combination thereof. In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of enzalutamide; ARN-509; and vinclozolin or any combination thereof. In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of galeterone; L-39; VT-464; orteronel; aminoglutethimide; and prochloraz or any combination thereof. In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of dutasteride; izonsteride; turosteride; and epristeride or any combination thereof. In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of genisterin; gossypol; equol; 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid; altraric acid; N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide; and 3,3′-diindolylmethane or any combination thereof. In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of deslorelin; nafarelin; cetrorelix; and ganirelix or any combination thereof. In other alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is selected from the group consisting of degarelix, abiraterone, degarelix, and dutasteride.

In some alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) antagonist or agonist. In some alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. In some alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist selected from deslorelin or nafarelin or a combination thereof. In some alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist. In some alternatives, the hormonal therapy agent is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist selected from cetrorelix or ganirelix or a combination thereof.

In some alternatives, one or more of the hormone therapy agents described above are administered to the patient before administering a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV). In other alternatives, one or more of the hormone therapy agents described above are administered to the patient after administering a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV). In other alternatives, one or more of the hormone therapy agents described above are concurrently (within a few hours) administered to the patient with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV).

In some alternatives, the androgen that is decreased in the subject is testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), androsterone, androstenediol, androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and/or dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S). In some alternatives, a subject's serum testosterone level is decreased with one or more anti-androgen agents or androgen ablation agents. Preferably, the androgen deprivation therapy is provided during a period in which one or more compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) are provided. In some alternatives, androgen deprivation therapy reduces the production of testosterone in a patient. In some embodiments, androgen deprivation therapy reduces the production of one or more hormones selected from testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), androsterone, androstenediol, androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S).

In some alternatives, a subject suffering from prostate cancer is classified or identified as a subject in need of a therapy for prostate cancer and said subject is provided a hormone therapy agent that reduces the subject's androgen levels while said subject is receiving one or more compounds of Formulas (I), (II), (III), and (IV). Optionally, the inhibition in prostate cancer cell growth or an inhibition in prostate cancer advancement is evaluated. Optionally, the delaying prostate cancer cell growth or delaying prostate cancer advancement is evaluated. A subject can be identified as one in need of a therapy for prostate cancer using conventional clinical pathology including, biopsy, CT scan, MRI, digital examination, Gleason score, or PSA level. A patient may receive a PET scan, which evaluate the activity of the tumor cells (glucose metabolism). Similarly, the inhibition or delay of cancer cell growth in said subject after receiving the treatment can be evaluated using conventional clinical pathology including, biopsy, CT scan, MRI, digital examination, Gleason score, or PSA level.

In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent that can be used with any one or more of the methods or treatments described herein is selected from the group consisting of an antiandrogen (including steroidal antiandrogens and nonsteroidal antiandrogens), an estrogen, a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist, and a LHRH antagonist or any combination thereof. Steroidal antiandrogen agents include, but are not limited to, cyproterone acetate and finasteride. Nonsteroidal antiandrogens include, but are not limited to, flutamide, nilutamide and bicalutamide. Estrogen agents include, but are not limited to, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, and estamustine phosphate. LHRH agonist agents include, but are not limited to, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin and buserelin. LHRH antagonist agents include, but are not limited to, abarelix and degarelix. Desirably, one or more of the compounds selected from the group consisting of cyproterone acetate, finasteride, flutamide, abiraterone, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix or any combination thereof are used in the methods and treatments (compositions) described herein, wherein one or more of the compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) (e.g., a compound of Table 1) are provided before, during, and/or after providing said cyproterone acetate, finasteride, flutamide, abiraterone, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, or ganirelix or any combination thereof.

As mentioned above, prostate cancer can be treated by hormone therapy agents, however, hormone therapy agents alone can result in the development of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). For example, hormonal therapy can initially deliver a response in a subject suffering from prostate cancer, however, the return of hormone-refractory tumors invariably prevents long-term patient survival. More effective strategies are needed to extend life expectancy and improve the quality of life for patients with advanced prostate cancer. Accordingly, some aspects disclosed herein concern methods for ameliorating or inhibiting or reducing or delaying the onset of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) or treatments (e.g., compositions used for the purpose of ameliorating or inhibiting or reducing or delaying the onset of CRPC), whereby one or more of the compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) are provided before, during and/or after providing cyproterone acetate, finasteride, abiraterone, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, or ganirelix or any combination thereof. Optionally, the inhibition in prostate cancer cell growth, an inhibition in prostate cancer advancement, or delaying the onset of CRPC is evaluated before during or after the therapy. Optionally, a patient with prostate cancer is classified as a subject in need of an agent that ameliorates, reduces, delays, or inhibits the onset of CRPC prior to receiving one or more of the combination therapies described herein. A subject can be identified as one in need of a therapy for prostate cancer using conventional clinical pathology including, biopsy, CT scan, PET scan, MRI, digital examination, Gleason score, or PSA level.

VI. Combination Therapies

In some alternatives, the compounds disclosed herein, such as a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) (e.g., a compound of Table 1), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound described herein, can be used in combination with one or more hormone therapy agents. Some alternatives disclosed herein relate to a method of ameliorating or treating a neoplastic disease that can include administering or providing to a subject suffering from a neoplastic disease a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds described herein (e.g., a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof), in combination with one or more additional agents, including hormone therapy agents (referred to as “combination therapy”).

Examples of additional agents that can be used in combination with a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, include, but are not limited to, agents that can decrease the subject's serum androgen levels (e.g., cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, or ganirelix or any combination thereof).

In some alternatives, the neoplastic disease can be cancer. In some alternatives, the neoplastic disease can be a tumor such as a solid tumor or metastasis. In an alternative, the neoplastic disease can be prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer and in some alternatives the prostate cancer can be CRPC, prostate cancer that has extended beyond the outer condensed fibromuscular band, also known as the capsule, or metastasis stemming from prostate cancer. In some alternatives, the prostate cancer is androgen dependent. Therefore, in some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is used in combination with one or more hormone therapy agents for the use in treating, inhibiting, delaying, or ameliorating progression of prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer growth of prostate cancer cells, or for inhibiting or preventing the onset of androgen-dependent prostate cancer, or for decreasing the size of a prostate tumor, or for inhibiting the onset of metastasis associated with prostate cancer. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is used in combination with one or more hormone therapy agents for the use in increasing the survival rate of a patient suffering from prostate cancer.

In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is used in combination with surgical orchiectomy and/or one or more of the hormone therapy agents (e.g. cyproterone acetate, finasteride, abiraterone, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, or ganirelix or any combination thereof) for the use in increasing the survival rate of a patient suffering from CRPC. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is used in combination with one or more hormone therapy agents for the use in reducing the size of a tumor or further expansion of cancer cells in a patient suffering from prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer. Some alternatives involve methods for inducing remission of prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer, whereby one or more of the compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV) are provided before, during and/or after providing a hormone therapy agent to a subject suffering from prostate cancer. In some alternatives, the methods disclosed herein can result in complete remission of prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer. In some alternatives, the methods can result in partial remission of prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer.

Normal serum testosterone ranges between 1000-300 ng/dL. In some alternatives, a subject is provided a combination therapy, as described herein, whereby a reduction in the treated subject's serum testosterone level to at least about ≦80, ≦70, ≦60, ≦50, ≦40, ≦30, ≦20, or ≦10 ng/dL is obtained. In some alternatives, a subject is provided a combination therapy that reduces the subject's serum testosterone level to at least about ≦50 ng/dL. In some alternatives, a subject is treated with a combination therapy that results in a reduction in the subject's serum testosterone level to at least about ≦20 ng/dL. In some alternatives, a subject is treated with a combination therapy, as described herein, that reduces the subject's serum testosterone level to at least about or any number in between the range of 120-70, 100-60, 80-40, 70-30, 50-20, 40-10, 30-10, or 20-10 ng/dL. In some alternatives, a subject is treated with a combination therapy that produces a reduction in the subject's serum testosterone level to about <95%, <90%, <80%, <70%, <60%, or <50% that of a healthy male. In some alternatives, a subject is treated with a combination therapy that results in a reduction in the subject's serum testosterone level to the range of at least about or any number in between the range of about 5-20%, 10-30%, 20-40%, 30-50%, 40-60%, or 50-70% that of a healthy male. In some alternatives, a subject is treated with a combination therapy that results in a reduction in the subject's serum testosterone level to the range of at least about or any number in between the range of about 1-2%, 2-4%, 1-5%, 4-6%, 4-8%, or 5-10% that of a healthy male.

Intermittent hormonal therapy (IHT) is an alternative to continuous hormonal therapy, which may delay progression of hormone-refractory disease (i.e., CRPC). For example, intermittent therapy can be used for a period of 6 months on, followed by a period of 6 months off. In some alternatives, one or more hormonal therapy agents is provided for one month on, followed by one month off. In some alternatives, one or more therapy agents are provided for three months on, followed by three months off. Accordingly, one or more of the compounds of Formula (I), (II), III) or (IV), can be provided before, during and/or after administering one or more hormonal therapy agents, as described above, so as to reduce or inhibit or delay the onset of CRPC.

A non-limiting list of example combination of compounds described herein (such as compounds of Formulae (I), (II), (III), and (IV)), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound described herein, with one or more hormonal therapy agents are provided in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 provides a shorthand name for each compound (e.g., “F01”) and a shorthand name for each therapy (e.g., “AT01”). Each numbered ‘X’ compound in Table 2 has a corresponding compound structure provided in Table 1. Likewise, each numbered ‘Y’ therapy in Table 2 has a corresponding therapy provided in Table 1. Therefore, each “X:Y” entry in Table 2 provides an example of a combination of a compound and an therapy that can be used to treat a subject suffering from prostate cancer. For example, the combination designated as “F02:AT04” in Table 2 provides a combination of

2-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone and flutamide that can be used to treat a subject suffering from prostate cancer, such as stage I, stage II, stage III or stage IV prostate cancer. Each of the combinations provided in Table 2 can be used with one, two, three or more additional agents described herein.

TABLE 1 Exemplary compounds and therapies of the present disclosure. Compound Additional Therapy

cyproterone acetate (AT01)

finasteride (AT02)

bicalutamide (AT03)

flutamide (AT04)

nilutamide (AT05)

abiraterone (AT06)

diethylstilbestrol (DES) (AT07)

megestrol acetate (AT08)

fosfestrol (AT09)

estamustine phosphate (AT10)

leuprolide (AT11)

triptorelin (AT12)

goserelin (AT13)

histrelin (AT14)

buserelin (AT15)

abarelix (AT16)

degarelix (AT17)

surgical orchiectomy (AT18)

VT-464 (AT19)

enzalutamide (AT20)

ARN-509 (AT21)

vinclozolin (AT22)

galeterone (AT23)

ketoconazole (AT24)

L-39 (AT25)

amino- glutethimide (AT26)

prochloraz (AT27)

dutasteride (AT28)

izonsteride (AT29)

turosteride (AT30)

epristeride (AT31)

genisterin (AT32)

gossypol (AT33)

equol (AT34)

18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (AT35)

altraric acid (AT36)

N-butylbenzene- sulfonamide (AT37)

3,3′- diindolylmethane (AT38)

deslorelin (AT39)

nafarelin (AT40)

cetrorelix (AT41)

ganirelix (AT42)

orteronel (AT43)

TABLE 2 X:Y X:Y X:Y X:Y X:Y X:Y X:Y F01:AT01 F02:AT01 F03:AT01 F04:AT01 F05:AT01 F06:AT01 F07:AT01 F01:AT02 F02:AT02 F03:AT02 F04:AT02 F05:AT02 F06:AT02 F07:AT02 F01:AT03 F02:AT03 F03:AT03 F04:AT03 F05:AT03 F06:AT03 F07:AT03 F01:AT04 F02:AT04 F03:AT04 F04:AT04 F05:AT04 F06:AT04 F07:AT04 F01:AT05 F02:AT05 F03:AT05 F04:AT05 F05:AT05 F06:AT05 F07:AT05 F01:AT06 F02:AT06 F03:AT06 F04:AT06 F05:AT06 F06:AT06 F07:AT06 F01:AT07 F02:AT07 F03:AT07 F04:AT07 F05:AT07 F06:AT07 F07:AT07 F01:AT08 F02:AT08 F03:AT08 F04:AT08 F05:AT08 F06:AT08 F07:AT08 F01:AT09 F02:AT09 F03:AT09 F04:AT09 F05:AT09 F06:AT09 F07:AT09 F01:AT10 F02:AT10 F03:AT10 F04:AT10 F05:AT10 F06:AT10 F07:AT10 F01:AT11 F02:AT11 F03:AT11 F04:AT11 F05:AT11 F06:AT11 F07:AT11 F01:AT12 F02:AT12 F03:AT12 F04:AT12 F05:AT12 F06:AT12 F07:AT12 F01:AT13 F02:AT13 F03:AT13 F04:AT13 F05:AT13 F06:AT13 F07:AT13 F01:AT14 F02:AT14 F03:AT14 F04:AT14 F05:AT14 F06:AT14 F07:AT14 F01:AT15 F02:AT15 F03:AT15 F04:AT15 F05:AT15 F06:AT15 F07:AT15 F01:AT16 F02:AT16 F03:AT16 F04:AT16 F05:AT16 F06:AT16 F07:AT16 F01:AT17 F02:AT17 F03:AT17 F04:AT17 F05:AT17 F06:AT17 F07:AT17 F01:AT18 F02:AT18 F03:AT18 F04:AT18 F05:AT18 F06:AT18 F07:AT18 F01:AT19 F02:AT19 F03:AT19 F04:AT19 F05:AT19 F06:AT19 F07:AT19 F01:AT20 F02:AT20 F03:AT20 F04:AT20 F05:AT20 F06:AT20 F07:AT20 F01:AT21 F02:AT21 F03:AT21 F04:AT21 F05:AT21 F06:AT21 F07:AT21 F01:AT22 F02:AT22 F03:AT22 F04:AT22 F05:AT22 F06:AT22 F07:AT22 F01:AT23 F02:AT23 F03:AT23 F04:AT23 F05:AT23 F06:AT23 F07:AT23 F01:AT24 F02:AT24 F03:AT24 F04:AT24 F05:AT24 F06:AT24 F07:AT24 F01:AT25 F02:AT25 F03:AT25 F04:AT25 F05:AT25 F06:AT25 F07:AT25 F01:AT26 F02:AT26 F03:AT26 F04:AT26 F05:AT26 F06:AT26 F07:AT26 F01:AT27 F02:AT27 F03:AT27 F04:AT27 F05:AT27 F06:AT27 F07:AT27 F01:AT28 F02:AT28 F03:AT28 F04:AT28 F05:AT28 F06:AT28 F07:AT28 F01:AT29 F02:AT29 F03:AT29 F04:AT29 F05:AT29 F06:AT29 F07:AT29 F01:AT30 F02:AT30 F03:AT30 F04:AT30 F05:AT30 F06:AT30 F07:AT30 F01:AT31 F02:AT31 F03:AT31 F04:AT31 F05:AT31 F06:AT31 F07:AT31 F01:AT32 F02:AT32 F03:AT32 F04:AT32 F05:AT32 F06:AT32 F07:AT32 F01:AT33 F02:AT33 F03:AT33 F04:AT33 F05:AT33 F06:AT33 F07:AT33 F01:AT34 F02:AT34 F03:AT34 F04:AT34 F05:AT34 F06:AT34 F07:AT34 F01:AT35 F02:AT35 F03:AT35 F04:AT35 F05:AT35 F06:AT35 F07:AT35 F01:AT36 F02:AT36 F03:AT36 F04:AT36 F05:AT36 F06:AT36 F07:AT36 F01:AT37 F02:AT37 F03:AT37 F04:AT37 F05:AT37 F06:AT37 F07:AT37 F01:AT38 F02:AT38 F03:AT38 F04:AT38 F05:AT38 F06:AT38 F07:AT38 F01:AT39 F02:AT39 F03:AT39 F04:AT39 F05:AT39 F06:AT39 F07:AT39 F01:AT40 F02:AT40 F03:AT40 F04:AT40 F05:AT40 F06:AT40 F07:AT40 F01:AT41 F02:AT41 F03:AT41 F04:AT41 F05:AT41 F06:AT41 F07:AT41 F01:AT42 F02:AT42 F03:AT42 F04:AT42 F05:AT42 F06:AT42 F07:AT42 F01:AT43 F02:AT43 F03:AT43 F04:AT43 F05:AT43 F06:AT43 F07:AT43 F08:AT01 F09:AT01 F10:AT01 F11:AT01 F12:AT01 F13:AT01 F14:AT01 F08:AT02 F09:AT02 F10:AT02 F11:AT02 F12:AT02 F13:AT02 F14:AT02 F08:AT03 F09:AT03 F10:AT03 F11:AT03 F12:AT03 F13:AT03 F14:AT03 F08:AT04 F09:AT04 F10:AT04 F11:AT04 F12:AT04 F13:AT04 F14:AT04 F08:AT05 F09:AT05 F10:AT05 F11:AT05 F12:AT05 F13:AT05 F14:AT05 F08:AT06 F09:AT06 F10:AT06 F11:AT06 F12:AT06 F13:AT06 F14:AT06 F08:AT07 F09:AT07 F10:AT07 F11:AT07 F12:AT07 F13:AT07 F14:AT07 F08:AT08 F09:AT08 F10:AT08 F11:AT08 F12:AT08 F13:AT08 F14:AT08 F08:AT09 F09:AT09 F10:AT09 F11:AT09 F12:AT09 F13:AT09 F14:AT09 F08:AT10 F09:AT10 F10:AT10 F11:AT10 F12:AT10 F13:AT10 F14:AT10 F08:AT11 F09:AT11 F10:AT11 F11:AT11 F12:AT11 F13:AT11 F14:AT11 F08:AT12 F09:AT12 F10:AT12 F11:AT12 F12:AT12 F13:AT12 F14:AT12 F08:AT13 F09:AT13 F10:AT13 F11:AT13 F12:AT13 F13:AT13 F14:AT13 F08:AT14 F09:AT14 F10:AT14 F11:AT14 F12:AT14 F13:AT14 F14:AT14 F08:AT15 F09:AT15 F10:AT15 F11:AT15 F12:AT15 F13:AT15 F14:AT15 F08:AT16 F09:AT16 F10:AT16 F11:AT16 F12:AT16 F13:AT16 F14:AT16 F08:AT17 F09:AT17 F10:AT17 F11:AT17 F12:AT17 F13:AT17 F14:AT17 F08:AT18 F09:AT18 F10:AT18 F11:AT18 F12:AT18 F13:AT18 F14:AT18 F08:AT19 F09:AT19 F10:AT19 F11:AT19 F12:AT19 F13:AT19 F14:AT19 F08:AT20 F09:AT20 F10:AT20 F11:AT20 F12:AT20 F13:AT20 F14:AT20 F08:AT21 F09:AT21 F10:AT21 F11:AT21 F12:AT21 F13:AT21 F14:AT21 F08:AT22 F09:AT22 F10:AT22 F11:AT22 F12:AT22 F13:AT22 F14:AT22 F08:AT23 F09:AT23 F10:AT23 F11:AT23 F12:AT23 F13:AT23 F14:AT23 F08:AT24 F09:AT24 F10:AT24 F11:AT24 F12:AT24 F13:AT24 F14:AT24 F08:AT25 F09:AT25 F10:AT25 F11:AT25 F12:AT25 F13:AT25 F14:AT25 F08:AT26 F09:AT26 F10:AT26 F11:AT26 F12:AT26 F13:AT26 F14:AT26 F08:AT27 F09:AT27 F10:AT27 F11:AT27 F12:AT27 F13:AT27 F14:AT27 F08:AT28 F09:AT28 F10:AT28 F11:AT28 F12:AT28 F13:AT28 F14:AT28 F08:AT29 F09:AT29 F10:AT29 F11:AT29 F12:AT29 F13:AT29 F14:AT29 F08:AT30 F09:AT30 F10:AT30 F11:AT30 F12:AT30 F13:AT30 F14:AT30 F08:AT31 F09:AT31 F10:AT31 F11:AT31 F12:AT31 F13:AT31 F14:AT31 F08:AT32 F09:AT32 F10:AT32 F11:AT32 F12:AT32 F13:AT32 F14:AT32 F08:AT33 F09:AT33 F10:AT33 F11:AT33 F12:AT33 F13:AT33 F14:AT33 F08:AT34 F09:AT34 F10:AT34 F11:AT34 F12:AT34 F13:AT34 F14:AT34 F08:AT35 F09:AT35 F10:AT35 F11:AT35 F12:AT35 F13:AT35 F14:AT35 F08:AT36 F09:AT36 F10:AT36 F11:AT36 F12:AT36 F13:AT36 F14:AT36 F08:AT37 F09:AT37 F10:AT37 F11:AT37 F12:AT37 F13:AT37 F14:AT37 F08:AT38 F09:AT38 F10:AT38 F11:AT38 F12:AT38 F13:AT38 F14:AT38 F08:AT39 F09:AT39 F10:AT39 F11:AT39 F12:AT39 F13:AT39 F14:AT39 F08:AT40 F09:AT40 F10:AT40 F11:AT40 F12:AT40 F13:AT40 F14:AT40 F08:AT41 F09:AT41 F10:AT41 F11:AT41 F12:AT41 F13:AT41 F14:AT41 F08:AT42 F09:AT42 F10:AT42 F11:AT42 F12:AT42 F13:AT42 F14:AT42 F08:AT43 F09:AT43 F10:AT43 F11:AT43 F12:AT43 F13:AT43 F14:AT43 F15:AT01 F16:AT01 F17:AT01 F18:AT01 F19:AT01 F20:AT01 F21:AT01 F15:AT02 F16:AT02 F17:AT02 F18:AT02 F19:AT02 F20:AT02 F21:AT02 F15:AT03 F16:AT03 F17:AT03 F18:AT03 F19:AT03 F20:AT03 F21:AT03 F15:AT04 F16:AT04 F17:AT04 F18:AT04 F19:AT04 F20:AT04 F21:AT04 F15:AT05 F16:AT05 F17:AT05 F18:AT05 F19:AT05 F20:AT05 F21:AT05 F15:AT06 F16:AT06 F17:AT06 F18:AT06 F19:AT06 F20:AT06 F21:AT06 F15:AT07 F16:AT07 F17:AT07 F18:AT07 F19:AT07 F20:AT07 F21:AT07 F15:AT08 F16:AT08 F17:AT08 F18:AT08 F19:AT08 F20:AT08 F21:AT08 F15:AT09 F16:AT09 F17:AT09 F18:AT09 F19:AT09 F20:AT09 F21:AT09 F15:AT10 F16:AT10 F17:AT10 F18:AT10 F19:AT10 F20:AT10 F21:AT10 F15:AT11 F16:AT11 F17:AT11 F18:AT11 F19:AT11 F20:AT11 F21:AT11 F15:AT12 F16:AT12 F17:AT12 F18:AT12 F19:AT12 F20:AT12 F21:AT12 F15:AT13 F16:AT13 F17:AT13 F18:AT13 F19:AT13 F20:AT13 F21:AT13 F15:AT14 F16:AT14 F17:AT14 F18:AT14 F19:AT14 F20:AT14 F21:AT14 F15:AT15 F16:AT15 F17:AT15 F18:AT15 F19:AT15 F20:AT15 F21:AT15 F15:AT16 F16:AT16 F17:AT16 F18:AT16 F19:AT16 F20:AT16 F21:AT16 F15:AT17 F16:AT17 F17:AT17 F18:AT17 F19:AT17 F20:AT17 F21:AT17 F15:AT18 F16:AT18 F17:AT18 F18:AT18 F19:AT18 F20:AT18 F21:AT18 F15:AT19 F16:AT19 F17:AT19 F18:AT19 F19:AT19 F20:AT19 F21:AT19 F15:AT20 F16:AT20 F17:AT20 F18:AT20 F19:AT20 F20:AT20 F21:AT20 F15:AT21 F16:AT21 F17:AT21 F18:AT21 F19:AT21 F20:AT21 F21:AT21 F15:AT22 F16:AT22 F17:AT22 F18:AT22 F19:AT22 F20:AT22 F21:AT22 F15:AT23 F16:AT23 F17:AT23 F18:AT23 F19:AT23 F20:AT23 F21:AT23 F15:AT24 F16:AT24 F17:AT24 F18:AT24 F19:AT24 F20:AT24 F21:AT24 F15:AT25 F16:AT25 F17:AT25 F18:AT25 F19:AT25 F20:AT25 F21:AT25 F15:AT26 F16:AT26 F17:AT26 F18:AT26 F19:AT26 F20:AT26 F21:AT26 F15:AT27 F16:AT27 F17:AT27 F18:AT27 F19:AT27 F20:AT27 F21:AT27 F15:AT28 F16:AT28 F17:AT28 F18:AT28 F19:AT28 F20:AT28 F21:AT28 F15:AT29 F16:AT29 F17:AT29 F18:AT29 F19:AT29 F20:AT29 F21:AT29 F15:AT30 F16:AT30 F17:AT30 F18:AT30 F19:AT30 F20:AT30 F21:AT30 F15:AT31 F16:AT31 F17:AT31 F18:AT31 F19:AT31 F20:AT31 F21:AT31 F15:AT32 F16:AT32 F17:AT32 F18:AT32 F19:AT32 F20:AT32 F21:AT32 F15:AT33 F16:AT33 F17:AT33 F18:AT33 F19:AT33 F20:AT33 F21:AT33 F15:AT34 F16:AT34 F17:AT34 F18:AT34 F19:AT34 F20:AT34 F21:AT34 F15:AT35 F16:AT35 F17:AT35 F18:AT35 F19:AT35 F20:AT35 F21:AT35 F15:AT36 F16:AT36 F17:AT36 F18:AT36 F19:AT36 F20:AT36 F21:AT36 F15:AT37 F16:AT37 F17:AT37 F18:AT37 F19:AT37 F20:AT37 F21:AT37 F15:AT38 F16:AT38 F17:AT38 F18:AT38 F19:AT38 F20:AT38 F21:AT38 F15:AT39 F16:AT39 F17:AT39 F18:AT39 F19:AT39 F20:AT39 F21:AT39 F15:AT40 F16:AT40 F17:AT40 F18:AT40 F19:AT40 F20:AT40 F21:AT40 F15:AT41 F16:AT41 F17:AT41 F18:AT41 F19:AT41 F20:AT41 F21:AT41 F15:AT42 F16:AT42 F17:AT42 F18:AT42 F19:AT42 F20:AT42 F21:AT42 F15:AT43 F16:AT43 F17:AT43 F18:AT43 F19:AT43 F20:AT43 F21:AT43 F22:AT01 F23:AT01 F24:AT01 F25:AT01 F26:AT01 F27:AT01 F28:AT01 F22:AT02 F23:AT02 F24:AT02 F25:AT02 F26:AT02 F27:AT02 F28:AT02 F22:AT03 F23:AT03 F24:AT03 F25:AT03 F26:AT03 F27:AT03 F28:AT03 F22:AT04 F23:AT04 F24:AT04 F25:AT04 F26:AT04 F27:AT04 F28:AT04 F22:AT05 F23:AT05 F24:AT05 F25:AT05 F26:AT05 F27:AT05 F28:AT05 F22:AT06 F23:AT06 F24:AT06 F25:AT06 F26:AT06 F27:AT06 F28:AT06 F22:AT07 F23:AT07 F24:AT07 F25:AT07 F26:AT07 F27:AT07 F28:AT07 F22:AT08 F23:AT08 F24:AT08 F25:AT08 F26:AT08 F27:AT08 F28:AT08 F22:AT09 F23:AT09 F24:AT09 F25:AT09 F26:AT09 F27:AT09 F28:AT09 F22:AT10 F23:AT10 F24:AT10 F25:AT10 F26:AT10 F27:AT10 F28:AT10 F22:AT11 F23:AT11 F24:AT11 F25:AT11 F26:AT11 F27:AT11 F28:AT11 F22:AT12 F23:AT12 F24:AT12 F25:AT12 F26:AT12 F27:AT12 F28:AT12 F22:AT13 F23:AT13 F24:AT13 F25:AT13 F26:AT13 F27:AT13 F28:AT13 F22:AT14 F23:AT14 F24:AT14 F25:AT14 F26:AT14 F27:AT14 F28:AT14 F22:AT15 F23:AT15 F24:AT15 F25:AT15 F26:AT15 F27:AT15 F28:AT15 F22:AT16 F23:AT16 F24:AT16 F25:AT16 F26:AT16 F27:AT16 F28:AT16 F22:AT17 F23:AT17 F24:AT17 F25:AT17 F26:AT17 F27:AT17 F28:AT17 F22:AT18 F23:AT18 F24:AT18 F25:AT18 F26:AT18 F27:AT18 F28:AT18 F22:AT19 F23:AT19 F24:AT19 F25:AT19 F26:AT19 F27:AT19 F28:AT19 F22:AT20 F23:AT20 F24:AT20 F25:AT20 F26:AT20 F27:AT20 F28:AT20 F22:AT21 F23:AT21 F24:AT21 F25:AT21 F26:AT21 F27:AT21 F28:AT21 F22:AT22 F23:AT22 F24:AT22 F25:AT22 F26:AT22 F27:AT22 F28:AT22 F22:AT23 F23:AT23 F24:AT23 F25:AT23 F26:AT23 F27:AT23 F28:AT23 F22:AT24 F23:AT24 F24:AT24 F25:AT24 F26:AT24 F27:AT24 F28:AT24 F22:AT25 F23:AT25 F24:AT25 F25:AT25 F26:AT25 F27:AT25 F28:AT25 F22:AT26 F23:AT26 F24:AT26 F25:AT26 F26:AT26 F27:AT26 F28:AT26 F22:AT27 F23:AT27 F24:AT27 F25:AT27 F26:AT27 F27:AT27 F28:AT27 F22:AT28 F23:AT28 F24:AT28 F25:AT28 F26:AT28 F27:AT28 F28:AT28 F22:AT29 F23:AT29 F24:AT29 F25:AT29 F26:AT29 F27:AT29 F28:AT29 F22:AT30 F23:AT30 F24:AT30 F25:AT30 F26:AT30 F27:AT30 F28:AT30 F22:AT31 F23:AT31 F24:AT31 F25:AT31 F26:AT31 F27:AT31 F28:AT31 F22:AT32 F23:AT32 F24:AT32 F25:AT32 F26:AT32 F27:AT32 F28:AT32 F22:AT33 F23:AT33 F24:AT33 F25:AT33 F26:AT33 F27:AT33 F28:AT33 F22:AT34 F23:AT34 F24:AT34 F25:AT34 F26:AT34 F27:AT34 F28:AT34 F22:AT35 F23:AT35 F24:AT35 F25:AT35 F26:AT35 F27:AT35 F28:AT35 F22:AT36 F23:AT36 F24:AT36 F25:AT36 F26:AT36 F27:AT36 F28:AT36 F22:AT37 F23:AT37 F24:AT37 F25:AT37 F26:AT37 F27:AT37 F28:AT37 F22:AT38 F23:AT38 F24:AT38 F25:AT38 F26:AT38 F27:AT38 F28:AT38 F22:AT39 F23:AT39 F24:AT39 F25:AT39 F26:AT39 F27:AT39 F28:AT39 F22:AT40 F23:AT40 F24:AT40 F25:AT40 F26:AT40 F27:AT40 F28:AT40 F22:AT41 F23:AT41 F24:AT41 F25:AT41 F26:AT41 F27:AT41 F28:AT41 F22:AT42 F23:AT42 F24:AT42 F25:AT42 F26:AT42 F27:AT42 F28:AT42 F22:AT43 F23:AT43 F24:AT43 F25:AT43 F26:AT43 F27:AT43 F28:AT43 F29:AT01 F30:AT01 F31:AT01 F32:AT01 F33:AT01 F34:AT01 F35:AT01 F29:AT02 F30:AT02 F31:AT02 F32:AT02 F33:AT02 F34:AT02 F35:AT02 F29:AT03 F30:AT03 F31:AT03 F32:AT03 F33:AT03 F34:AT03 F35:AT03 F29:AT04 F30:AT04 F31:AT04 F32:AT04 F33:AT04 F34:AT04 F35:AT04 F29:AT05 F30:AT05 F31:AT05 F32:AT05 F33:AT05 F34:AT05 F35:AT05 F29:AT06 F30:AT06 F31:AT06 F32:AT06 F33:AT06 F34:AT06 F35:AT06 F29:AT07 F30:AT07 F31:AT07 F32:AT07 F33:AT07 F34:AT07 F35:AT07 F29:AT08 F30:AT08 F31:AT08 F32:AT08 F33:AT08 F34:AT08 F35:AT08 F29:AT09 F30:AT09 F31:AT09 F32:AT09 F33:AT09 F34:AT09 F35:AT09 F29:AT10 F30:AT10 F31:AT10 F32:AT10 F33:AT10 F34:AT10 F35:AT10 F29:AT11 F30:AT11 F31:AT11 F32:AT11 F33:AT11 F34:AT11 F35:AT11 F29:AT12 F30:AT12 F31:AT12 F32:AT12 F33:AT12 F34:AT12 F35:AT12 F29:AT13 F30:AT13 F31:AT13 F32:AT13 F33:AT13 F34:AT13 F35:AT13 F29:AT14 F30:AT14 F31:AT14 F32:AT14 F33:AT14 F34:AT14 F35:AT14 F29:AT15 F30:AT15 F31:AT15 F32:AT15 F33:AT15 F34:AT15 F35:AT15 F29:AT16 F30:AT16 F31:AT16 F32:AT16 F33:AT16 F34:AT16 F35:AT16 F29:AT17 F30:AT17 F31:AT17 F32:AT17 F33:AT17 F34:AT17 F35:AT17 F29:AT18 F30:AT18 F31:AT18 F32:AT18 F33:AT18 F34:AT18 F35:AT18 F29:AT19 F30:AT19 F31:AT19 F32:AT19 F33:AT19 F34:AT19 F35:AT19 F29:AT20 F30:AT20 F31:AT20 F32:AT20 F33:AT20 F34:AT20 F35:AT20 F29:AT21 F30:AT21 F31:AT21 F32:AT21 F33:AT21 F34:AT21 F35:AT21 F29:AT22 F30:AT22 F31:AT22 F32:AT22 F33:AT22 F34:AT22 F35:AT22 F29:AT23 F30:AT23 F31:AT23 F32:AT23 F33:AT23 F34:AT23 F35:AT23 F29:AT24 F30:AT24 F31:AT24 F32:AT24 F33:AT24 F34:AT24 F35:AT24 F29:AT25 F30:AT25 F31:AT25 F32:AT25 F33:AT25 F34:AT25 F35:AT25 F29:AT26 F30:AT26 F31:AT26 F32:AT26 F33:AT26 F34:AT26 F35:AT26 F29:AT27 F30:AT27 F31:AT27 F32:AT27 F33:AT27 F34:AT27 F35:AT27 F29:AT28 F30:AT28 F31:AT28 F32:AT28 F33:AT28 F34:AT28 F35:AT28 F29:AT29 F30:AT29 F31:AT29 F32:AT29 F33:AT29 F34:AT29 F35:AT29 F29:AT30 F30:AT30 F31:AT30 F32:AT30 F33:AT30 F34:AT30 F35:AT30 F29:AT31 F30:AT31 F31:AT31 F32:AT31 F33:AT31 F34:AT31 F35:AT31 F29:AT32 F30:AT32 F31:AT32 F32:AT32 F33:AT32 F34:AT32 F35:AT32 F29:AT33 F30:AT33 F31:AT33 F32:AT33 F33:AT33 F34:AT33 F35:AT33 F29:AT34 F30:AT34 F31:AT34 F32:AT34 F33:AT34 F34:AT34 F35:AT34 F29:AT35 F30:AT35 F31:AT35 F32:AT35 F33:AT35 F34:AT35 F35:AT35 F29:AT36 F30:AT36 F31:AT36 F32:AT36 F33:AT36 F34:AT36 F35:AT36 F29:AT37 F30:AT37 F31:AT37 F32:AT37 F33:AT37 F34:AT37 F35:AT37 F29:AT38 F30:AT38 F31:AT38 F32:AT38 F33:AT38 F34:AT38 F35:AT38 F29:AT39 F30:AT39 F31:AT39 F32:AT39 F33:AT39 F34:AT39 F35:AT39 F29:AT40 F30:AT40 F31:AT40 F32:AT40 F33:AT40 F34:AT40 F35:AT40 F29:AT41 F30:AT41 F31:AT41 F32:AT41 F33:AT41 F34:AT41 F35:AT41 F29:AT42 F30:AT42 F31:AT42 F32:AT42 F33:AT42 F34:AT42 F35:AT42 F29:AT43 F30:AT43 F31:AT43 F32:AT43 F33:AT43 F34:AT43 F35:AT43 F36:AT01 F37:AT01 F38:AT01 F39:AT01 F40:AT01 F41:AT01 F42:AT01 F36:AT02 F37:AT02 F38:AT02 F39:AT02 F40:AT02 F41:AT02 F42:AT02 F36:AT03 F37:AT03 F38:AT03 F39:AT03 F40:AT03 F41:AT03 F42:AT03 F36:AT04 F37:AT04 F38:AT04 F39:AT04 F40:AT04 F41:AT04 F42:AT04 F36:AT05 F37:AT05 F38:AT05 F39:AT05 F40:AT05 F41:AT05 F42:AT05 F36:AT06 F37:AT06 F38:AT06 F39:AT06 F40:AT06 F41:AT06 F42:AT06 F36:AT07 F37:AT07 F38:AT07 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The order of administration of a compound disclosed herein (such as a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV)), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, with one or more additional hormone therapy agent(s) can vary. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered prior to all additional hormone therapy agents. In other alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered prior to at least one additional hormone therapy agent. In still other alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered concomitantly with one or more additional hormone therapy agent(s). In yet still other alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered subsequent to the administration of at least one additional hormone therapy agent. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered subsequent to the administration of all additional hormone therapy agents.

In some alternatives, a subject suffering from prostate cancer is treated by surgical orchiectomy (i.e., removal of the testes). In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered after surgical orchiectomy. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered before and after surgical orchiectomy.

In some alternatives, the compounds disclosed herein, such as a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound described herein, can be used in combination with one or more hormone therapy agents and in further combination with one or more statins. Statins are inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase that can be administered to a subject to reduce testosterone/dihydrotestosterone levels. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound described herein, can be used in combination with one or more statins. In some alternatives, the one or more statins can be selected from among simvastatin (Zocor), atrovastatin (Lipitor), fluvastatin (Lescol), lovastatin (Mevacor, Altocor), pitavastatin (Livalo), pravastatin (Pravachol), or rosuvastatin (Crestor) or any combination thereof.

Determining and Evaluating Anti-Cancer Activity

Animal models are pivotal to further our understanding of the mechanisms of (progressive) growth of cancer. Currently used rodent tumor models, including transgenic tumor models, (using genetically modified mice susceptible to develop cancer), as well as implantation of human tumors under the skin in immunodeficient mice, do not sufficiently represent clinical cancer, especially with regard to metastasis and drug sensitivity. Preclinical tumor model systems employed to evaluate potential new treatment strategies should aim to represent the process and patterns of metastasis of their clinical counterparts as closely as possible.

A syngeneic pseudo-orthotopic in vivo model was developed to study the early steps of prostate cancer. Chambers are surgically placed into the dorsal skinfold of male mice. Briefly, male mice (25-30 g body weight) are anesthetized and placed on a heating pad. Two symmetrical titanium frames are implanted into the dorsal skinfold. A circular layer is excised from one of the skin layers. The underlying muscle and subcutaneous tissues are covered with a glass coverslip incorporated in one of the frames. After a recovery period of 2-3 days, stroma tissue and tumor cells are carefully placed in the chamber.

Tumor-derived cell lines can be grown directly in the chamber, corresponding to the traditional subcutaneous model. However, it was found that various minced tissues implanted in the chambers survive and revascularize, and that tumor-derived cell lines adapt to these various stroma after co-implantation, which points to this approach as an orthotopic model as well as a model for initial steps in metastasis.

For example, mouse prostate tissue can be grafted in the chamber. The graft develops its own vasculature and serve as orthotopic stroma for the tumor. A small number of prostate cancer cells (e.g., TRAMP-C2 cells derived from a TRAMP mouse) can be implanted on top of the prostate stroma. The tumor microenvironment can be important for the progression of different types of cancer, and orthotopic implantation of cancer cells can recapitulate human disease much more closely than subcutaneous implantation. Tumors can grow faster and develop better vasculature when the cancer cells are implanted into the relevant organ. Co-implanting mouse prostate cancer cells with prostate stroma can provide the tumor cells with an environment that better reflects the clinical disease compared to purely subcutaneous models. Re-vascularized stromal tissue and implanted tumors can remain viable for long periods of time using this method, for example, up to 90 days.

Phosphate and Tensin Homolog (PTEN) Deficient Model

Mouse cells derived from the PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted in chromosome 10) deficient model of prostate cancer can be used to study prostate cancer. The tumor suppressor PTEN is one of the most frequently mutated genes in human prostate cancer. Loss of PTEN can result in constitutively high PI3-kinase and Akt activities, which may lead to increased migration, invasiveness, cell proliferation and survival. Loss of PTEN can play a major role in the pathogenesis of human prostate cancer. Alteration of at least one PTEN allele is observed in approximately 60% of primary tumors. Loss of PTEN can be associated with higher Gleason scores and poor prognosis, cancer progression toward hormone-independence, resistance to chemotherapy or to radiotherapy, and bone metastasis. PTEN-deficient mice have an increased incidence of cancer, similarly to the human genetic predisposition to cancer known as Cowden syndrome, which is caused by germline mutation in the PTEN gene. In these respects, the PTEN-deficient model appears to mimic human development quite closely. Thus, heterozygous disruption of the PTEN gene can result in spontaneous development of tumors in several tissues and prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) lesions in the prostate. Prostate-specific homozygous loss of PTEN can be sufficient to induce prostate tumors, which can progress into metastatic disease. Heterozygous loss of PTEN, on the other hand, can cause PIN with a late latency.

Germline homozygous deletion of PTEN may result in embryonic lethality due to PTEN ablation. This can be overcome through the conditional inactivation of the gene using the Cre-LoxP system. A transgenic mouse can be generated that displays expression of the Cre recombinase specifically in the epithelial cells of the prostate through the use of the prostate-specific probasin promoter (PB-Cre4 mice). By crossing these animals with mice that have floxed PTEN alleles, it can be possible to generate both heterozygous and homozygous mice in which PTEN is deleted specifically in the prostate epithelium. Progression of prostate cancer in this model is very similar to the progression of prostate cancer as observed in humans. For example, in this model epithelial hyperplasia was observed, followed by dysplasia, PIN, invasive adenocarcinoma, and finally metastases to the lymph nodes and to the lung. Similar to human cancer, the PTEN-null mice first regress following androgen ablation, and then become androgen-independent.

Epithelial cell lines can be derived from a prostate tumor dissected from a homozygous PTEN^(L/L)/PBCre+ mouse. At least two clonal cell lines (PTEN-P2 and PTEN-P8) are heterozygous PTEN^(L/+). The remaining allele can be silenced by forced expression of the Cre recombinase in vitro (PTEN-CaP2 and PTEN-CaP8 cells). Loss of the second allele can increase anchorage-independent growth and confer tumorigenesis in vivo. Spontaneous androgen-independence can occur in vivo, even though the PTEN-CaP2 and PTEN-CaP8 cells express the androgen receptor.

The implementation of PTEN prostate cells in the animal models disclosed herein can be highly relevant to human prostate cancer, and can allow detailed observation of the growth and/or regression of prostate tumors in response to different treatment regimens. Implantation in syngeneic mice respects many aspects of normal tumor growth. For example, two pairs of mouse prostate cancer cells (PTEN-P2/8 and PTEN-CaP2/8) can facilitate examination of metastasis in a mouse model of prostate cancer that is relevant to human cancer.

IntraVital Microscopy (IVM)

IntraVital Microscopy (IVM) can be used to visualize tumors in animals and analyze various aspects of cancer physiology such as tumor vascularization, cell migration and metastasis. An advantage of IVM includes the real-time analysis of dynamic processes with single-cell resolution. IntraVital microscopy offers the possibility to follow tumor growth in a non-invasive, non-destructive manner. The application of IVM can be limited to animal models that bear visually accessible tumors. Therefore, the dorsal skinfold chamber model described above can be compatible with IVM. Using IVM can permit a number of parameters to be measured in living animals and as a function of time, including tumor growth, angiogenesis, infiltration by immune cells, tumor cell migration, mitosis (cell-division) and apoptosis (programmed cell death), all in the context of the host and in real time.

VIII. Pharmaceutical Compositions

Some alternatives described herein relate to a pharmaceutical composition, that can include a therapeutically effective amount of one or more compounds described herein, e.g., a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and/or a hormone therapy agent and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent, excipient or combination thereof. In some alternatives, the pharmaceutical composition can include a single diastereomer of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, (for example, a single diastereomer is present in the pharmaceutical composition at a concentration of greater than 99% compared to the total concentration of the other diastereomers). In other alternatives, the pharmaceutical composition can include a mixture of diastereomers of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. For example, the pharmaceutical composition can include a concentration of one diastereomer of >about 50%, ≧60%, ≧70%, ≧80%, ≧90%, ≧95%, or ≧98%, as compared to the total concentration of the other diastereomers. In some alternatives, the pharmaceutical composition includes a racemic mixture of diastereomers of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Some alternatives described herein relate to a pharmaceutical composition, that can include a therapeutically effective amount a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), an additional hormone therapy agent, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent, excipient or combination thereof. Some alternatives described herein relate to a pharmaceutical composition, that can include a therapeutically effective amount a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent, excipient or combination thereof. Some alternatives relate to a pharmaceutical composition that can include a therapeutically effective amount of a hormone therapy agent and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent, excipient or combination thereof.

The pharmaceutical compositions described herein can be administered to a human patient per se, or in pharmaceutical compositions where they are mixed with other active ingredients, as in combination therapy, or carriers, diluents, excipients or combinations thereof. Proper formulation is dependent upon the route of administration chosen. Techniques for formulation and administration of the compounds described herein are known to those skilled in the art.

The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein may be manufactured in a manner that is itself known, e.g., by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping or tableting processes. Additionally, the active ingredients are contained in an amount effective to achieve its intended purpose. Many of the compounds used in the pharmaceutical combinations disclosed herein may be provided as salts with pharmaceutically compatible counterions.

Multiple techniques of administering a compound and/or agent exist in the art including, but not limited to, oral, rectal, topical, aerosol, injection and parenteral delivery, including intramuscular, subcutaneous, intravenous, intramedullary injections, intrathecal, direct intraventricular, intraperitoneal, intranasal and intraocular injections.

One may also administer the compound and/or agent in a local rather than systemic manner, for example, via injection of the compound directly into the infected area, often in a depot or sustained release formulation. Furthermore, one may administer the compound and/or agent in a targeted drug delivery system, for example, in a liposome coated with a tissue-specific antibody. The liposomes will be targeted to and taken up selectively by the organ.

The compositions may, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device which may contain one or more unit dosage forms containing the active ingredient. The pack may for example comprise metal or plastic foil, such as a blister pack. The pack or dispenser device may be accompanied by instructions for administration. The pack or dispenser may also be accompanied with a notice associated with the container in form prescribed by a governmental agency regulating the manufacture, use, or sale of pharmaceuticals, which notice is reflective of approval by the agency of the form of the drug for human or veterinary administration. Such notice, for example, may be the labeling approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for prescription drugs, or the approved product insert. Compositions that can include a compound and/or agent described herein formulated in a compatible pharmaceutical carrier may also be prepared, placed in an appropriate container, and labeled for treatment of an indicated condition.

IX. Dosing

As will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art, the useful in vivo dosage to be administered and the particular mode of administration will vary depending upon the age, weight, the severity of the affliction, and mammalian species treated, the particular compounds employed, and the specific use for which these compounds are employed. The determination of effective dosage levels, that is the dosage levels necessary to achieve the desired result, can be accomplished by one skilled in the art using routine methods, for example, human clinical trials and in vitro studies.

The dosage may range broadly, depending upon the desired effects and the therapeutic indication. Alternatively dosages may be based and calculated upon the surface area of the patient, as understood by those of skill in the art. Although the exact dosage will be determined on a drug-by-drug basis, in most cases, some generalizations regarding the dosage can be made. The daily dosage regimen for an adult human patient may be, for example, an oral dose of between 0.01 mg and 3000 mg of each active ingredient, preferably between 1 mg and 700 mg, e.g. 5 to 200 mg. The dosage may be a single one or a series of two or more given in the course of one or more days, as is needed by the subject. In some alternatives, an active ingredient will be administered for a period of continuous therapy, for example for a week or more, or for months or years. In some alternatives, an active ingredient can be administered one time per day.

Multiple doses of an active ingredient can be administered to a subject. For example, an active ingredient can be administered once per month, twice per month, three times per month, every other week (qow), once per week (qw), twice per week (biw), three times per week (tiw), four times per week, five times per week, six times per week, every other day (qod), daily (qd), twice a day (qid), or three times a day (tid), over a period of time ranging from about one day to about one week, from about two weeks to about four weeks, from about one month to about two months, from about two months to about four months, from about four months to about six months, from about six months to about eight months, from about eight months to about 1 year, from about 1 year to about 2 years, or from about 2 years to about 4 years, or more.

In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III) or (IV) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a hormone therapy agent can be cyclically administered to a patient. Cycling therapy involves the administration of a first active ingredient for a period of time, followed by the administration of a second active ingredient for a period of time and repeating this sequential administration. Cycling therapy can reduce the development of resistance to one or more therapies, avoid or reduce the side effects of one or more therapies, and/or improve the efficacy of treatment. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III) or (IV) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a hormone therapy agent are administered in a cycle of less than about 3 weeks, about once every two weeks, about once every 10 days, or about once every week. The number of cycles can be from about 1 to about 12 cycles, or from about 2 to about 10 cycles, or from about 2 to about 8 cycles.

In some alternatives, the active ingredient can be a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some alternatives, the active ingredient can be a hormone therapy agent. In some alternatives, both an active ingredient of a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and an active ingredient of a hormone therapy agent are administered to a subject.

The daily dosage regimen for an adult human patient may be the same or different for two active ingredients provided in combination. For example, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV) can be provided at a dose of between 0.01 mg and 3000 mg, while a hormone therapy agent can be provided at a dose of between 1 mg and 700 mg. The dosage or each active ingredient can be, independently, a single one or a series of two or more given in the course of one or more days, as is needed by the subject. In some alternatives, the active ingredients will be administered for a period of continuous therapy, for example for a week or more, or for months or years. In some alternatives, a compound of Formula (I), (II), (III), or (IV), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, can be administered one time per day. In some alternatives, the hormone therapy agent can be administered once a week.

In instances where human dosages for active ingredients have been established for at least some condition, those same dosages may be used, or dosages that are between about 0.1% and 500%, more preferably between about 25% and 250% of the established human dosage. Where no human dosage is established, as will be the case for newly-discovered pharmaceutical compositions, a suitable human dosage can be inferred from ED₅₀ or ID₅₀ values, or other appropriate values derived from in vitro or in vivo studies, as qualified by toxicity studies and efficacy studies in animals.

In cases of administration of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, dosages may be calculated as the free base. As will be understood by those of skill in the art, in certain situations it may be necessary to administer the active ingredients disclosed herein in amounts that exceed, or even far exceed, the above-stated, preferred dosage range in order to effectively and aggressively treat particularly aggressive diseases.

Dosage amount and interval may be adjusted individually to provide plasma levels of the active moiety which are sufficient to maintain the modulating effects, or minimal effective concentration (MEC). The MEC will vary for each active ingredient but can be estimated from in vitro data. Dosages necessary to achieve the MEC will depend on individual characteristics and route of administration. However, HPLC assays or bioassays can be used to determine plasma concentrations. Dosage intervals can also be determined using MEC value. Compositions should be administered using a regimen which maintains plasma levels above the MEC for 10-90% of the time, preferably between 30-90% and most preferably between 50-90%. In cases of local administration or selective uptake, the effective local concentration of the drug may not be related to plasma concentration.

It should be noted that the attending physician would know how to and when to terminate, interrupt, or adjust administration due to toxicity or organ dysfunctions. Conversely, the attending physician would also know to adjust treatment to higher levels if the clinical response were not adequate (precluding toxicity). The magnitude of an administrated dose in the management of the disorder of interest will vary with the severity of the condition to be treated and to the route of administration. The severity of the condition may, for example, be evaluated, in part, by standard prognostic evaluation methods. Further, the dose and perhaps dose frequency, will also vary according to the age, body weight, and response of the individual patient. A program comparable to that discussed above may be used in veterinary medicine.

Active ingredients disclosed herein can be evaluated for efficacy and toxicity using known methods. For example, the toxicology of a particular active ingredient, or of a subset of the active ingredients, sharing certain chemical moieties, may be established by determining in vitro toxicity towards a cell line, such as a mammalian, and preferably human, cell line. The results of such studies are often predictive of toxicity in animals, such as mammals, or more specifically, humans. Alternatively, the toxicity of particular compounds in an animal model, such as mice, rats, rabbits, or monkeys, may be determined using known methods. The efficacy of a particular active ingredient may be established using several recognized methods, such as in vitro methods, animal models, or human clinical trials. When selecting a model to determine efficacy, the skilled artisan can be guided by the state of the art to choose an appropriate model, dose, route of administration and/or regime.

EXAMPLES

Additional alternatives are disclosed in further detail in the following examples, which are not in any way intended to limit the scope of the claims.

Example 1 General procedure for synthesis of 2-phenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

One millimole of 2-bromo-1,4-naphthoquinone dissolved in 20 ml of dry acetonitrile or THF was mixed with 1.2 mmol of corresponding phenol. N,N-diisopropylethylamine (1.2 mmol) was added and the mixture was refluxed for 30 minutes to 2 hours. The progress of the reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Then the solvent was evaporated on a rotary evaporator and the product was purified by liquid chromatography on a silica gel column. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

2-phenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (R1) (F01)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.14-8.06 (m, 1H), 8.01-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.94-7.85 (m, 2H), 7.58-7.50 (m, 2H), 7.40-7.32 (m, 1H), 7.32-7.23 (m, 2H), 5.78 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 251.2 [M+H]⁺.

2-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R2) (F02)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.15-8.07 (m, 1H), 8.03-7.96 (m, 1H), 7.96-7.87 (m, 2H), 6.60 (t, J=1.0 Hz, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 340.7 [M]⁺.

2-(4-acetamidophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R3) (F03)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 10.10 (s, 1H), 8.13-8.05 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.74-7.67 (m, 2H), 7.24-7.17 (m, 2H), 5.77 (s, 1H), 2.06 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 308.2 [M+H]⁺.

2-(2,4,6-trifluorophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R4) (F04)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 240 (13,800), 245 (13,800), 263 (10,400), 331 (2,280). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.15-8.07 (m, 1H), 8.02-7.95 (m, 1H), 7.95-7.86 (m, 2H), 7.57-7.47 (m, 2H), 6.24 (d, J=1.1 Hz, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 327.1 [M+Na]⁺.

2-(4-methoxyphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R5) (F05)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.06 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.92 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.25-7.17 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.01 (m, 2H), 5.72 (s, 1H), 3.80 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 281.3 [M+H]⁺.

2-(4-(benzyloxy)phenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R6) (F06)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.06 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.51-7.30 (m, 5H), 7.25-7.12 (m, 4H), 5.73 (s, 1H), 5.14 (s, 2H). ESI-MS, m/z: 357.4 [M+H]⁺.

2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R7) (F07)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.14-8.06 (m, 1H), 8.01-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.85 (m, 2H), 7.52 (dd, J=2.5, 0.9 Hz, 1H), 7.40 (dd, J=8.6, 2.6 Hz, 1H), 7.25 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 1H), 5.70 (s, 1H), 2.18 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 298.6 [M]⁺.

2-(3-methylphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R8) (F08)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm¹): 241 (17,900), 245 (17,900), 267 (11,500), 327 (2,940). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.14-8.05 (m, 1H), 8.01-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.41 (t, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (ddt, J=7.7, 1.7, 0.9 Hz, 1H), 7.14-7.03 (m, 2H), 5.79 (s, 1H), 2.36 (d, J=0.8 Hz, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 287.1 [M+Na]⁺.

2-(naphthalene-2-yloxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R9) (F09)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 240 (22,900), 246 (22,600), 270 (15,000), 328 (3,300). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.16-8.05 (m, 2H), 8.04-7.85 (m, 5H), 7.82 (d, J=2.4 Hz, 1H), 7.63-7.53 (m, 2H), 7.47 (dd, J=8.9, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 5.92 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 301.3 [M+H]⁺.

2-(4-hydroxyphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R10) (F10)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm¹): 240 (13,700), 245 (13,600), 272 (9,900), 330 (2,260). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.65 (s, 1H), 8.12-8.05 (m, 1H), 7.98-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.91-7.83 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.03 (m, 2H), 6.89-6.84 (m, 2H), 5.71 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 267.1 [M+H]⁺.

2-(4-(2-dimethylaminoethyl)phenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (R11) (F11)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.06 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.41-7.34 (m, 2H), 7.21-7.14 (m, 2H), 5.75 (s, 1H), 2.79-2.72 (m, 2H), 2.50-2.44 (m, 2H), 2.19 (s, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 322.4 [M+H]⁺.

2-(4-nitrophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (R12) (F12)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.37-8.30 (m, 2H), 8.11-8.04 (m, 1H), 8.04-7.85 (m, 3H), 7.58-7.51 (m, 2H), 6.39 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 295.1 [M−H]⁻.

2-(2-benzyl-4-chlorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (R13) (F13)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.06 (m, 1H), 7.96-7.84 (m, 3H), 7.57 (d, J=2.7 Hz, 1H), 7.44 (ddd, J=8.6, 2.6, 0.9 Hz, 1H), 7.30-7.10 (m, 5H), 7.03 (tq, J=7.3, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 5.53 (d, J=0.9 Hz, 1H), 3.91 (s, 2H). ESI-MS, m/z: 375.9 [M+H]⁺.

2-(4-chlorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (R16) (F14)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.05 (m, 1H), 8.02-7.94 (m, 1H), 7.94-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.61-7.53 (m, 2H), 7.37-7.29 (m, 2H), 5.91 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 307.7 [M+Na]⁺.

2-(4-chloro-3-methylphenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (R14) (F15)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.05 (m, 1H), 8.02-7.94 (m, 1H), 7.94-7.85 (m, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (dd, J=3.0, 0.9 Hz, 1H), 7.16 (dd, J=8.7, 2.8 Hz, 1H), 5.92 (s, 1H), 2.36 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 321.2 [M+Na]⁺.

2-(2-chloro-4-methoxyphenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (R15) (F16)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.14-8.08 (m, 1H), 8.01-7.96 (m, 1H), 7.94-7.86 (m, 2H), 7.38 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.27 (d, J=2.9 Hz, 1H), 7.07 (dd, J=9.0, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 5.72 (s, 1H), 3.83 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 337.7 [M+Na]⁺.

2-(3,5-difluorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (R17) (F17)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.12-8.04 (m, 1H), 8.04-7.96 (m, 1H), 7.95-7.86 (m, 2H), 7.25-7.13 (m, 3H), 6.28 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 309.2 [M+Na]⁺.

Example 2 General procedure for synthesis of 2-bromo-3-phenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

One millimole of 2,3-dibromo-1,4-naphthoquinone dissolved in 20 ml of dry acetonitrile or THF was mixed with 1 mmol of appropriate phenol. 1 mmol of N,N-diisopropylethylamine was added and the mixture was refluxed for 30 minutes to 2 hours. The progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC. Then the solvent was evaporated on a rotary evaporator and the product was purified by liquid chromatography on a silica gel column. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

2-bromo-3-phenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (Y4) (F18)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.16-8.08 (m, 1H), 8.02-7.85 (m, 3H), 7.38-7.30 (m, 2H), 7.21-7.06 (m, 3H).

methyl 3-bromo-1,4-naphthoquinon-2-yl-salicylate (Y12) (F19)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.14-8.08 (m, 1H), 7.98-7.83 (m, 4H), 7.51 (ddd, J=8.2, 7.3, 1.8 Hz, 1H), 7.30-7.22 (m, 2H), 3.81 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 387.2 [M]⁻.

2-bromo-3-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (F20)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.13-8.08 (m, 1H), 8.02-7.96 (m, 1H), 7.94-7.88 (m, 2H).

Example 3 General procedure for synthesis of 2,3-diphenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

One millimole of 2,3-dibromo-1,4-naphthoquinone dissolved in 30 ml of dry acetonitrile or THF was mixed with 2.5 mmol of appropriate phenol. N,N-diisopropylethylamine (2.5 mmol) was added and the mixture was refluxed for 30 minutes to 2 hours. The progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC. Then the solvent was evaporated on a rotary evaporator and the product was purified by liquid chromatography on a silica gel column. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

2,3-diphenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (B9) (F21)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.02 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.30-7.21 (m, 4H), 7.13-6.99 (m, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 343.2 [M+H]⁺.

2,3-bis(2,4,6-trifluorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (B10) (F22)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.01 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.91 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.35 (t, J=8.7 Hz, 4H).

2,3-bis(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (B11) (F23)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.02 (dt, J=7.4, 3.7 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (dd, J=2.6, 1.0 Hz, 2H), 7.13 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.07 (dd, J=8.7, 2.6 Hz, 2H), 2.01 (s, 6H).

2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (B12) (F24)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm; 9.12 (s, 2H), 8.02-7.93 (m, 2H), 7.91-7.83 (m, 2H), 6.90-6.82 (m, 4H), 6.64-6.56 (m, 4H). ESI-MS, m/z: 375.3 [M+H]⁺.

N,N′-(((1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalene-2,3-diyl)bis(oxy))bis(4,1-phenylene))diacetamide (B14) (F25)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.84 (s, 2H), 8.00 (dt, J=7.4, 3.7 Hz, 2H), 7.89 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.47-7.40 (m, 4H), 7.05-6.98 (m, 4H), 2.00 (s, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 457.4 [M+H]⁺.

2,3-bis(m-tolyloxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (B15) (F26)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.02 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.12 (t, J=7.9 Hz, 2H), 6.93 (t, J=2.0 Hz, 2H), 6.89-6.80 (m, 4H), 2.21 (s, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 371.3 [M+H]⁺.

2,3-bis(perfluorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (B16) (F27)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.01 (dd, J=5.8, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.92 (dd, J=5.8, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 3.28 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 15H). ESI-MS, m/z: 522.1 [M]⁺.

2,3-bis(4-nitrophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (B17) (F28)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.21-8.14 (m, 4H), 8.06 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.94 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.49-7.42 (m, 4H).

2,3-bis(4-aminophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (F29)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.01 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.13-7.05 (m, 4H), 7.05-6.96 (m, 4H), 4.04 (s, 4H). ESI-MS, m/z: 373.3 [M+H]⁺.

2,3-bis(3,5-difluorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F30)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.05 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.96-7.88 (m, 2H), 7.13-7.04 (m, 4H), 6.94 (tt, J=9.3, 2.3 Hz, 2H). ESI-MS, m/z: 437.2 [M+Na]⁺.

2,3-bis(4-chlorophenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F31)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.02 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.90 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.35-7.27 (m, 4H), 7.20-7.12 (m, 4H). ESI-MS, m/z: 410.2 [M−H]⁻.

2,3-bis(4-methoxyphenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F32)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.03-7.96 (m, 2H), 7.88 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.04-6.96 (m, 4H), 6.83-6.76 (m, 4H), 3.69 (d, J=0.6 Hz, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 403.3 [M+H]⁺.

2,3-bis(4-(benzyloxy)phenoxy)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F33)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.00 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.92-7.84 (m, 2H), 7.44-7.36 (m, 8H), 7.34-7.30 (m, 2H), 7.02-6.95 (m, 4H), 6.90-6.83 (m, 4H), 5.03 (s, 4H). ESI-MS, m/z: 555.6 [M+H]⁺.

Example 4 Synthesis of 2,3-bis(4-((2-chloroethyl)carbamoyloxy)phenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone

To 0.25 mmol of 2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone in 5 ml of dimethylformamide, 0.5 mmol of 2-chloroethyl isocyanate and 0.5 mmol of N,N-diisopropylethylamine was added, and the resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature for 6 hours. The product was purified by liquid chromatography on a silica column. The following compound was synthesized according to this general procedure.

2,3-bis(4-((2-chloroethyl)carbamoyloxy)phenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone (N5) (F34)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.06-7.95 (m, 4H), 7.90 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.15-7.06 (m, 4H), 7.05-6.96 (m, 4H), 3.66 (t, J=6.1 Hz, 4H), 3.38 (q, J=6.0 Hz, 4H). ESI-MS, m/z: 585.9 [M]⁺.

Example 5 General procedure for synthesis of 2-arylamino-1,4-naphthoquinones

To 1 mmol of 1,4-naphthoquinone dissolved in 30 ml of anhydrous methanol, 0.75 mmol of corresponding arylamine was added. The mixture was stirred for 6-12 hours at 50-60° C. The solvent was evaporated on a rotary evaporator and the product was purified by liquid chromatography on a silica gel column. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (W1) (F35)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.21 (s, 1H), 8.07 (dd, J=7.7, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.95 (dd, J=7.6, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.86 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.79 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.49-7.36 (m, 4H), 7.23 (tt, J=7.2, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 6.11 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 272.1 [M+Na]⁺.

2-((4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)amino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F59)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.45 (s, 1H), 8.08 (dd, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.97 (dd, J=7.6, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.92-7.85 (m, 1H), 7.85-7.75 (m, 3H), 7.63 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 6.34 (d, J=1.0 Hz, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 316.3 [M−H]⁻.

2-((4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)amino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F36)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.33 (s, 1H), 8.07 (dd, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.96 (dd, J=7.7, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.87 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.80 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.55-7.48 (m, 2H), 7.44 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 6.14 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 332.3 [M−H]⁻.

2-(p-tolylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F60)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.17 (s, 1H), 8.06 (dd, J=7.7, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.94 (dd, J=7.7, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.85 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.30-7.22 (m, 4H), 6.04 (s, 1H), 2.32 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 262.1 [M−H]⁻.

2-((3,5-difluorophenyl)amino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F61)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.36 (s, 1H), 8.07 (dd, J=7.6, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.97 (dd, J=7.6, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.81 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.21-7.14 (m, 2H), 7.04 (tt, J=9.3, 2.3 Hz, 1H), 6.33 (s, 1H), 3.29 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 284.3 [M−H]⁻.

2-((4-chlorophenyl)amino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (F62)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.28 (s, 1H), 8.07 (dd, J=7.7, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.96 (dd, J=7.7, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.87 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.80 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.53-7.46 (m, 2H), 7.46-7.40 (m, 2H), 6.13 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 282.7 [M−H]⁻.

N-((4-((1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)amino)phenyl)sulfonyl)-acetamide (F63)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 12.06 (s, 1H), 9.50 (s, 1H), 8.09 (dd, J=7.7, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.98 (dd, J=7.6, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.95-7.85 (m, 3H), 7.82 (td, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.68-7.61 (m, 2H), 6.42 (s, 1H), 1.94 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 393.3 [M+Na]⁺.

4-((1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)amino)benzenesulfonamide (F58)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.43 (s, 1H), 8.08 (dd, J=7.5, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.97 (dd, J=7.6, 1.4 Hz, 1H), 7.92-7.77 (m, 4H), 7.62-7.56 (m, 2H), 7.34 (s, 2H), 6.32 (s, 1H). ESI-MS, m/z: 327.2 [M−H]⁻.

Example 6 General procedure for synthesis of 2-N-acetylamino-3-chloro-1,4-naphthoquinone

1 mmol of 2-amino-3-chloro-1,4-naphthoquinone was dispersed in 60 mmol of acetic anhydride and the mixture was stirred at room temperature. 1 drop of concentrated sulfuric acid was added as a catalyst, which lead to the formation of a yellow precipitate that was subsequently collected by vacuum filtration. The following compound was synthesized according to this general procedure.

2-N-acetylamino-3-chloro-1,4-naphthoquinone (F37)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 244 (12,600), 250 (13,600), 284 (7,300), 334 (2,700). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 10.14 (s, 1H), 8.11-7.99 (m, 2H), 7.94-7.86 (m, 2H), 2.14 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 248.6 [M−H]⁻.

Example 7 General procedure for synthesis of 2-N-acetyl-3-phenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

1 mmol of 2-N-acetylamino-3-chloro-1,4-naphthoquinone in 30 ml of dry acetonitrile was mixed with 2.5 mmol of appropriate phenol. (N,N′-((1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalene-3,2-diyl))diacetamide was obtained using 0.5 mmol of hydroquinone and 2.5 mmol of N,N-diisopropylethylamine. The mixture was refluxed for 30 minutes to 2 hours. The progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC. The solvent was evaporated on a rotary evaporator and the product was then purified by liquid chromatography on a silica gel column. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

N-(1,4-dioxo-3-phenoxy-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide (F38)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 249 (17,300), 278 (8,600), 330 (3,300). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.74 (s, 1H), 8.08-8.00 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.82 (m, 2H), 7.34-7.25 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.00 (m, 3H), 1.90 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 308.3 [M+H]⁺.

N-(3-(4-chlorophenoxy)-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide (F39)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 249 (19,200), 277 (9,600), 330 (3,700). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.77 (s, 1H), 8.08-8.01 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.92-7.83 (m, 2H), 7.37-7.30 (m, 2H), 7.14-7.06 (m, 2H), 1.94 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 342.7 [M+H]⁺.

N-(4-((3-acetamido-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)oxy)phenyl)acetamide (F40)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm¹): 249 (34,000), 333 (3,900). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.86 (s, 1H), 9.70 (s, 1H), 8.06-8.02 (m, 1H), 8.00-7.93 (m, 1H), 7.92-7.82 (m, 2H), 7.50-7.42 (m, 2H), 7.00-6.93 (m, 2H), 2.01 (s, 3H), 1.90 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 387.3 [M+Na]⁺.

N-(3-(4-methoxyphenoxy)-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide (F41)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 247 (22,400), 277 (13,200), 333 (3,700). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.67 (s, 1H), 8.06-8.00 (m, 1H), 7.99-7.92 (m, 1H), 7.92-7.82 (m, 2H), 7.02-6.95 (m, 2H), 6.88-6.81 (m, 2H), 3.72 (s, 3H), 1.90 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 338.3 [M+H]⁺.

N-(3-(4-(benzyloxy)phenoxy)-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide (F42)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm¹): 245 (25,600), 277 (14,000), 333 (3,700). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.67 (s, 1H), 8.06-8.00 (m, 1H), 7.99-7.92 (m, 1H), 7.92-7.82 (m, 2H), 7.44 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 7.38 (dd, J=8.4, 6.7 Hz, 2H), 7.35-7.29 (m, 1H), 7.01-6.96 (m, 2H), 6.95-6.89 (m, 2H), 5.06 (s, 2H), 1.88 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 414.4 [M+H]⁺.

N-(3-(3,5-difluorophenoxy)-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide (F43)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm¹): 249 (21,000), 282 (11,200), 332 (3,900). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.81 (s, 1H), 8.08-8.01 (m, 1H), 8.01-7.94 (m, 1H), 7.93-7.84 (m, 2H), 6.94 (ddd, J=18.4, 9.0, 2.3 Hz, 3H), 1.99 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 344.2 [M+H]⁺.

N,N′-((1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalene-3,2-diyl))diacetamide (F44)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 248 (26,000), 275 (13,400), 333 (4,800). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 9.74 (s, 2H), 8.08-8.00 (m, 2H), 8.00-7.92 (m, 2H), 7.92-7.82 (m, 4H), 6.98 (s, 4H), 1.95 (s, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 535.4 [M−H]⁻.

Example 8 Synthesis of N-acetyl-N-(3-chloro-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide

0.01 mol of 2-amino-3chloro-1,4-naphthoquinone was suspended in 4 ml of acetic acid followed by addition of 0.07 mol of acetic anhydride and one drop of concentrated sulfuric acid. The reaction mixture was refluxed for 6 hours and then slowly cooled to 4° C. The precipitate was then filtered off and recrystalized from dichloromethane/methanol 3:1 to yield product.

N-acetyl-N-(3-chloro-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide (F45)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.20-8.15 (m, 1H), 8.14-8.08 (m, 1H), 8.02-7.94 (m, 2H), 2.35 (s, 6H).

Example 9 Synthesis of methyl 2-((8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)thio)acetate

0.8 mmol of plumbagin was dissolved in the mixture of 20 ml of methanol and 15 ml of 2-propanol. 0.8 mmol of methylthioglycolate was added, and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 6 hours. The reaction mixture was poured into water and extracted with diethylether. The ether layer was washed twice with 10% CuSO₄ solution and then with water. The organic phase was then dried and concentrated on a rotary evaporator. The product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel. The following compound was synthesized according to this general procedure.

Methyl 2-((8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)thio)acetate (F46)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 11.63 (s, 1H), 7.73 (dd, J=8.4, 7.5 Hz, 1H), 7.54 (dd, J=7.5, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (dd, J=8.4, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 4.03 (s, 2H), 3.61 (s, 3H), 2.27 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 293.1 [M+H]⁺. Elemental analysis, found, %: C, 57.27; H, 4.63; S, 11.52. Calculated for C14H12O5S (292.04), %: C, 57.53; H, 4.14; S, 10.97.

Example 10 General procedure for synthesis of 5-alkyloxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

1 mmol of corresponding 5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone was dissolved in 10 ml of dry acetonitrile, followed by the addition of 5 mmol of appropriate alkyliodide. 1 mmol of silver oxide was subsequently added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 6-24 hours. The progress of the reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography (TLC) on aluminium-backed silica gel 60 F254 plates (Merck, Germany). The product was purified by liquid chromatography on silica gel using hexane/ethylacetate (4/1) as eluent. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

5-methoxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (F47)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm⁻¹): 246 (16,900), 390 (4,400). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.77 (dd, J=8.5, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (dd, J=7.6, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.52 (dd, J=8.6, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 6.78 (q, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 2.04 (d, J=1.6 Hz, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 203.2 [M+H]⁺. EA, found, %: C, 71.13; H, 5.55. Calculated for C12H10O3 (202.21), %: C, 71.28; H, 4.98.

5-(4-iodobutoxy)-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (F48)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.75 (dd, J=8.5, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (dd, J=7.6, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.51 (dd, J=8.6, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 6.77 (q, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.16 (t, J=6.1 Hz, 2H), 3.41 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 2.09-1.99 (m, 5H), 1.90-1.80 (m, 2H). ESI-MS, m/z: 371.1 [M+H]⁺. EA, found, %: C, 48.57; H, 4.35. Calculated for C15H15IO3 (370.19), %: C, 48.67; H, 4.08.

5-(3-iodopropoxy)-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (F49)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.81-7.72 (m, 1H), 7.67-7.58 (m, 1H), 7.54 (dd, J=8.5, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 6.82-6.75 (m, 1H), 4.16 (t, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 3.58 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 2H), 3.34-3.26 (m, 1H), 2.27-2.15 (m, 2H), 2.04 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 3H).

5-isopropoxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (F50)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.73 (dd, J=8.5, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (dd, J=7.7, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.52 (dd, J=8.5, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 6.75 (q, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.75 (h, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 2.03 (d, J=1.6 Hz, 3H), 1.32 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 231.2 [M+H]⁺.

5-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (F51)

UV-VIS (MeOH) λ_(max) (nm) (ε_(max), dm³·mol⁻¹·cm¹): 242 (19,370), 392 (4,170). ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.81 (dd, J=8.5, 7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.62-7.53 (m, 2H), 6.99-6.91 (m, 1H), 6.92-6.85 (m, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H).

5,8-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (F52)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.56 (s, 2H), 6.78 (s, 2H), 3.85 (s, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 219.1 [M+H]⁺.

Example 11 General procedure for synthesis of 2-alkyloxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

5.7 mmol of 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone was dissolved in 50 ml of appropriate alcohol (methanol or ethanol), followed by addition of 0.8 ml of 36% HCl. The mixture was refluxed for 3-4 hours and then cooled to room temperature. The precipitate was filtered off and recrystallized from ethylacetate/methanol. The following compound was synthesized according to this general procedure.

2-ethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (F53)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.03-7.93 (m, 2H), 7.84 (dtd, J=18.0, 7.4, 1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.11 (q, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 6.33 (s, 1H), 1.38 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H).

Example 12 General procedure for synthesis of 5-O-acetoxy-1,4-naphthoquinones

1 mmol of plumbagin in 10 ml of dichloromethane was mixed with 3 mmol of pyridine at 0° C. 2 mmol of corresponding acetyl chloride was added while the mixture was stirred at 0° C. The reaction mixture was incubated for 4 hours at room temperature then washed with water and brine. The dried organic phase was resolved by column chromatography on silica to yield the desired product. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

6-methyl-5,8-dioxo-5,8-dihydronaphthalen-1-yl acetate (F54)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.97 (dd, J=7.7, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (t, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 7.56 (dd, J=8.0, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 6.85 (q, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 2.35 (s, 3H), 2.09 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 253.2 [M+Na]⁺.

6-methyl-5,8-dioxo-5,8-dihydronaphthalen-1-yl 2-chloroacetate (F55)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.01 (dd, J=7.8, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.93 (t, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 7.62 (dd, J=8.1, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 6.87 (q, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 4.79 (s, 2H), 2.09 (s, 3H). ESI-MS, m/z: 287.4 [M+Na]⁺.

Example 13 General procedure for synthesis of phenylenedioxybis(1,4-naphthoquinones)

1 mmol of 2-bromo-1,4-naphthoquinone dissolved in 20 ml of dry acetonitrile or THF was mixed with 0.5 mmol of corresponding hydroquinone. 1 mmol of N,N-diisopropylethylamine was added and the mixture was refluxed for 2 hours. The product was then purified by liquid chromatography on a silica gel column. The following compounds were synthesized according to this general procedure.

2,2′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(naphthalene-1,4-dione) (G1) (F56)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.14-8.10 (m, 2H), 8.02-7.99 (m, 2H), 7.91 (td, J=5.3, 4.6, 3.2 Hz, 4H), 7.43 (s, 4H), 6.09 (s, 2H).

3,3′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(2-bromonaphthalene-1,4-dione) (G6) (F57)

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 8.15-8.07 (m, 2H), 8.02-7.95 (m, 2H), 7.94-7.84 (m, 4H), 7.15 (s, 4H).

Example 14 Synthesis of 2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone

0.01 mol of 2,3-dichloro-1,4-naphthoquinone and 0.03 mol of sodium methoxide were refluxed in 50 ml of anhydrous methanol for 4 hours. Then 0.02 mol of sodium methoxide was added to the reaction and the mixture was refluxed for 1 hour. The reaction mixture was concentrated in vaccuo, and the solid residue was filtered off and extensively washed with water.

2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone

¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆), δ, ppm: 7.96 (dd, J=5.7, 3.3 Hz, 2H), 7.84-7.79 (m, 2H), 3.99 (s, 6H). ESI-MS, m/z: 241.1 [M+Na]⁺.

Example 15

Cell Culture:

PTEN-P2/GFP are cells that stably express histone H2B-GFP fusion protein. Kanda et al. (Kanda T, Sullivan K F, Wahl G M. Histone-GFP fusion protein enables sensitive analysis of chromosome dynamics in living mammalian cells. Curr Biol 1998 Mar. 26; 8(7):377-85). These investigators developed a highly sensitive method for observing chromosome dynamics in living cells. They fused the human Histone H2B gene to the gene encoding the GFP, which was transfected into human HeLa cells to generate a stable line constitutively expressing H2B-GFP. The H2B-GFP fusion protein was incorporated into chromatin without affecting cell cycle progression. We have generated cDNA encoding a Histone H2B-GFP fusion protein under the 5′LTR in the LXRN retroviral cassette, and have introduced it into a number of humans, as well as, murine cancer cell lines by retroviral transduction.

Cells are grown in phenol red-free DMEM medium containing 10% FBS, 2 mM L-glutamine, 100 U/ml penicillin/100 μg/ml streptomycin, insulin-selenium-transferrin (5 μg/ml insulin), and DHT 10⁻⁸M final. Androgen withdrawal is achieved by not adding DHT to the medium. Cells are maintained in a humidified incubator at 37° C. and 5% CO₂. G418 (100 μg/ml) is added to maintain stable expression of H2B-GFP.

Cell Counting:

Cells in 12-well plates are washed once with PBS, detached using Trypsin, and transferred to a suspension vial in a final volume of 10 ml PBS. Cells are counted using a COULTER™ Multisizer II instrument (Beckman Coulter Inc., Hialeah, Fla.) gated for the appropriate cell size and corrected for particulate debris.

Animal Model and Surgical Techniques:

Animal experiments have been approved as appropriate. All surgical procedures are performed in a sterile laminar flow hood. Dorsal skinfold chambers and surgical instruments are autoclaved before use. Saline used to keep tissue moist during surgical preparation is mixed with gentamicin (50 μl/ml).

Male Nude mice (25-35 g body weight) are anesthetized (7.3 mg ketamine hydrochloride and 2.3 mg xylazine/100 g body weight, i.p.) and placed on a heating pad. Two symmetrical titanium frames are implanted into a dorsal skinfold, so as to sandwich the extended double layer of skin. A 15 mm full thickness circular layer is excised. The underlying muscle (M. cutaneous max.) and subcutaneous tissues are covered with a glass coverslip incorporated in one of the frames. After a recovery period of 2-3 days, prostate tissue and cancer cell spheroids are carefully placed in the chamber. Small circular Band Aids are applied on the backside of the chamber after surgery to prevent scratching. Before surgery, Buprenorphine (0.1 mg/kg) is given IP. After surgery Meloxicam is given in the drinking water for 4 days Meloxicam (5.0 mg/ml), is added at 35 μl per 100 ml of water to be medicated.

Preparation of stroma: A male donor mouse is euthanized and the anterior prostate tissue is excised, put in a Petri dish with antibiotics (gentamicin 50 μl/ml), and minced with fine scissors into small pieces (<1 mm²) for implantation.

Preparation of tumor spheroids: Liquid overlay plates are generated using 1% Agarose melted in DMEM that is added to round-bottom 96-well plates (50 ul/well). Cancer cells grown as pre-confluent monolayers are trypsinized, diluted to a final volume of 250,000 tumor cells/ml. Viability is determined using Trypan blue. The cells are plated at 100 ul/well into the agarose-coated plates. After 48 hours the cells form spheroids, which are picked and washed in serum-free medium before implantation into the mouse chambers. Viability is determined using Trypan blue. The size of the implanted spheroid can be determined precisely to minimize variations between animals.

Surgical Castration:

Mice are anesthetized with 7.3 mg ketamine hydrochloride and 2.3 mg xylazine/100 g body weight, i.p. A lateral incision across the scrotum is made and the testes are individually ligated and excised. The wound is cauterized. The incision is then sutured and sealed with Nexaband® acrylic.

Intravital Microscopy:

Fluorescence microscopy is performed using a Mikron Instrument Microscope equipped with epi-illuminator and video-triggered stroboscopic illumination from a xenon arc (MV-7600, EG&G). A silicon intensified target camera (SIT68, Dage-MTI) is attached to the microscope. A Hamamatsu image processor (Argus 20) with firmware version 2.50 (Hamamatsu Photonic System) is used for image enhancement and for the capture of images to a computer. A Zeiss Plan Neoflour 1.25×/0.035 objective is used to obtain an over-view of the chamber and to determine tumor size. A Zeiss A-Plan 10×/0.25 objective is used to capture images for calculation of vascular parameters. A Zeiss Achroplan 20×/0.5 W objective is used to capture images for calculation of mitotic and apoptotic indices. Our system permits evaluation of the following parameters.

Tumor area (A_(T)) is defined as number of pixels with photo density above 75 (256 gray levels), i.e., A_(T)=ΣA_(k), for 75<k<255.

Number of Tumor cells: When tumors are heterogeneous, changes in A_(T) do not directly reflect tumor growth. An estimate of the number of tumor cells (N_(TC)) can be obtained by fitting to a quadratic function of an intensity index, e.g. N_(TC)=−3.296×10⁻¹²+190.6×I_(T)+7.7310⁻²×(I_(T))², where the index of intensity is given by I_(T)=ΣA₅*k, for 75<k<255.

Mitotic and Apoptotic Indices: At each time point, two peripheral and two central ×20 fields of the tumor are captured with a FITC filter and an integrated frame grabber. Only mitotic figures in metaphase-telophase (MI) are included in the mitotic indices to exclude the potential artifact of nuclear membrane distortion. Apoptotic/Pyknotic nuclei are defined as H₂B-GFP labeled nuclei with a cross sectional area <30 μm². Nuclear karyorrhexis (NK), easily distinguishable by the vesicular nuclear condensation and brightness of H2BGFP, is included within this apoptotic indices.

Image Analysis of Vascular Parameters:

For each spheroid, video recordings are used to calculate length, area and vascular density of the neovasculature being induced by the implanted tumor spheroids. Vascular parameters are analyzed from the video recording using Image-Pro Plus. Photomicrographs obtained with the ×10 objective, are “flattened” to reduce the intensity variations in the background pixels. An Area of Interest (AOI) is selected to eliminate distorted areas, and thresholding is used to segment the picture into objects and background. This panel is used to calculate the vascular area (A_(V)). The picture is skeletonized to calculate the vascular length (L_(V)). The average tumor vessel diameter D_(V) is calculated as A_(V)/L_(V), and the vascular density (Δ_(V)) is calculated as L_(V) per tumor area. Finally, we calculate the growth rate of the total area of tumor vasculature.

Example 16 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on PTEN-P2/GFP cell proliferation

100 microliters of PTEN-P2/GFP prostate cancer cells were plated at a density of 8000 cells/well in 96-well plates (triplicates) in growing medium containing 10% Fetal Bovine Serum and DHT. The next day, increasing concentrations of a 1,4-naphthoquinone analog (diluted from 10 mM DMSO stock solutions) were added. DMSO used as solvent for all analogs, was kept constant through the 96-well plates. The control consisted of DMSO alone. The cells were subsequently incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ in normal cell growth conditions. Cell viability was assessed by adding 9 microL/well of WST-1 reagent (Clontech), which measured mitochondrial activity of live cells. Blank control was measured from wells that do not contain cells. The incubation time was 3 hours at 37° C. Optical density of the cell samples was measured at 460 nm, by using plate reader Spectra Max 250 (Molecular Devices). The drug was determined to be cytotoxic when OD values show an inverse correlation with analog concentrations. The results are shown in TABLES 3.1-3.4, FIGS. 2A-2E, and FIGS. 3A-3D.

TABLE 3.1 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on PTEN-P2/GFP cell proliferation. values are expressed as percent of control and calculated from triplicate measurements, i.e. (average OD − blank) × 100/(OD control-blank). Conc. (μM) Analog 0 1.2 2.5 5 7.5 10 15 20 F04 100.00 101.28 100.99 83.33 17.58 2.09 1.47 2.64 F05 100.00 102.23 112.56 56.12 8.83 1.32 0.77 3.41 F06 100.00 99.82 99.82 104.65 106.45 108.06 99.16 79.89 F09 100.00 117.14 113.83 105.95 70.05 28.67 1.97 3.09 F12 100.00 121.91 117.77 118.43 117.31 114.53 78.75 8.27 F13 100.00 129.14 119.36 60.46 17.48 1.69 2.19 2.53 F14 100.00 100.03 92.33 86.23 71.03 19.23 1.27 2.30 F15 100.00 95.60 88.97 97.07 55.47 4.30 1.67 2.40 F16 100.00 92.80 97.00 82.50 12.03 0.73 1.43 2.30 F17 100.00 97.00 91.77 88.67 78.23 71.47 1.07 2.53 F22 100.00 91.17 103.04 104.80 106.65 104.44 104.53 101.46 F24 100.00 111.45 87.12 57.62 30.95 8.07 6.73 3.73

TABLE 3.2 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on PTEN-P2/GFP cell proliferation. values are expressed as percent of control and calculated from triplicate measurements, i.e. (average OD − blank) × 100/(OD control-blank). Conc. (μM) Analog 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 15 25 F01 100 91.66 77.92 63.35 43.06 30.92 24.11 13.22 9.77 9.86 F02 100 97.93 94.81 93.34 90.32 82.62 74.32 47.62 28.70 12.34 F03 100 97.81 97.08 97.08 97.08 84.95 76.23 43.00 19.98 9.61 F07 100 101.24 101.64 100.82 95.98 88.44 81.78 36.29 19.38 12.46 F08 100 101.78 100.84 99.36 92.23 83.88 68.77 30.84 12.79 9.66 F10 100 98.56 95.41 91.19 82.75 67.14 53.59 25.18 16.68 17.65 F11 100 99.57 93.37 79.24 61.26 46.04 36.39 22.78 12.28 9.33 F18 100 96.58 92.54 85.46 69.81 53.51 44.99 20.29 11.10 9.64 F19 100 99.49 94.28 85.15 81.05 68.17 59.29 32.26 20.08 12.14 F21 100 101.71 92.94 92.94 92.94 61.79 54.38 26.10 16.20 16.31 F34 100 74.53 49.60 35.80 25.97 19.30 17.16 14.16 14.25 14.52 F57 100 98.18 97.98 98.56 98.87 95.73 86.73 61.42 42.76 17.36

TABLE 3.3 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on PTEN-P2/GFP cell proliferation. values are expressed as percent of control and calculated from triplicate measurements, i.e. (average OD − blank) × 100/(OD control-blank). Conc. (μM) Analog 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 15 25 F37 100 100.87 94.44 86.58 71.43 55.72 36.71 17.65 13.95 13.58 F38 100 95.76 86.99 71.65 54.02 40.95 30.74 16.58 14.66 14.29 F39 100 101.60 82.21 70.56 57.49 41.52 29.44 14.26 12.04 12.66 F40 100 96.95 98.80 89.21 85.20 73.18 67.29 56.18 46.08 44.62 F41 100 95.08 89.80 84.52 75.00 69.62 63.93 36.93 13.48 12.64 F42 100 100.96 101.26 97.56 89.14 83.76 75.26 37.49 20.23 16.60 F43 100 94.63 88.70 78.33 68.39 55.27 45.23 32.85 24.68 24.07 F44 100 105.78 101.97 68.98 58.58 50.49 45.36 38.74 20.86 17.13

TABLE 3.4 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on PTEN-P2/GFP cell proliferation. values are expressed as percent of control and calculated from triplicate measurements, i.e. (average OD − blank) × 100/(OD control-blank). Conc. (μM) Analog 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 25 50 F46 100 95.38 90.58 84.91 75.04 66.11 60.57 54.70 33.05 12.97 13.55 F47 100 104.81 103.52 104.31 106.79 104.67 105.44 105.53 108.84 78.80 11.06 F48 100 103.11 102.38 102.38 102.38 109.41 111.93 114.65 103.27 11.01 10.01 F51 100 102.73 103.63 104.81 105.11 103.36 94.00 85.66 43.42 9.58 10.35 F52 100 105.53 108.02 111.62 113.23 110.60 105.63 93.34 52.06 11.24 11.94 F53 100 93.98 91.82 89.93 93.24 93.68 92.46 93.41 94.06 28.62 12.92

Example 17 Dose response of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs in human breast cancer cells SKBR-3

100 microliters of human breast cancer SKBR-3 cells were plated at a density of 8000 cells/well in 96-well plates (triplicates) in growing medium containing 10% Fetal Bovine Serum, penicillin/streptomycin, and glutamine. The next day, increasing concentrations of a 1,4-naphthoquinone analog (diluted from 10 mM DMSO stock solutions) were added. DMSO used as solvent for all analogs, was kept constant through the 96-well plates. The control consisted of DMSO alone. The cells were subsequently incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ in normal cell growth conditions. Cell viability was assessed by adding 9 microL/well of WST-1 reagent (Clontech), which measured mitochondrial activity of live cells. Blank control was measured from wells that do not contain cells. The incubation time was 3 hours at 37° C. Optical density of the cell samples was measured at 460 nm, by using plate reader Spectra Max 250 (Molecular Devices). The drug was determined to be cytotoxic when OD values show an inverse correlation with analog concentrations. The results are shown in TABLE 4, and FIG. 4.

TABLE 4 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on human SKBR-3 cell proliferation. Values are expressed as percent of control and calculated from triplicate measurements, i.e. (average OD − blank) × 100/(OD control-blank). Conc. (μM) Analog 0 1.2 2.5 5 7.5 10 15 20 F01 100.00 99.47 105.05 85.33 61.15 4.30 1.90 2.19 F02 100.00 107.66 116.47 107.37 94.47 75.45 35.60 3.02 F03 100.00 88.89 87.44 64.41 36.88 7.32 1.24 1.57 F04 100.00 86.74 83.72 74.38 65.90 7.52 1.20 1.90 F05 100.00 151.35 144.41 120.15 94.14 17.05 1.91 2.99 F06 100.00 152.32 147.42 134.16 151.41 136.66 125.96 21.95 F07 100.00 143.50 160.12 131.48 68.35 12.78 2.70 6.29

Example 18 Dose response of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs in human fibrosarcoma cells HT1080

100 microliters of human fibrosarcoma HT1080 cells were plated at a density of 8000 cells/well in 96-well plates (triplicates) in growing medium containing 10% Fetal Bovine Serum, penicillin/streptomycin, and glutamine. The next day, increasing concentrations of a 1,4-naphthoquinone analog (diluted from 10 mM DMSO stock solutions) were added. DMSO used as solvent for all analogs, was kept constant through the 96-well plates. The control consisted of DMSO alone. The cells were subsequently incubated for 24 hours at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ in normal cell growth conditions. Cell viability was assessed by adding 9 microL/well of WST-1 reagent (Clontech), which measured mitochondrial activity of live cells. Blank control was measured from wells that do not contain cells. The incubation time was 3 hours at 37° C. Optical density of the cell samples was measured at 460 nm, by using plate reader Spectra Max 250 (Molecular Devices). The drug was determined to be cytotoxic when OD values show an inverse correlation with analog concentrations. The results are shown in TABLE 5, and FIG. 5.

TABLE 5 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on the proliferation of human fibrosarcoma HT1080 cells. Values are expressed as percent of control and calculated from triplicate measurements, i.e. (average OD − blank) × 100/(OD control-blank). Conc. (μM) Analog 0 1.2 2.5 5 7.5 10 15 20 F01 100.00 85.21 81.88 66.22 73.66 69.05 41.07 18.29 F02 100.00 84.28 82.46 82.96 76.72 74.71 65.17 63.04 F03 100.00 81.33 85.67 74.59 72.11 75.09 55.37 38.21 F04 100.00 87.77 81.64 78.43 84.86 76.41 69.17 63.51 F05 100.00 81.04 76.27 67.81 67.85 66.08 55.00 56.04 F06 100.00 82.93 81.12 80.24 81.24 50.19 49.19 46.81 F07 100.00 85.35 89.16 76.04 68.43 69.89 67.89 69.50

Example 19 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone Analogs on Androgen Receptor Degradation

1,4-Naphthoquinone analogs were assayed for androgen receptor degradation in PTEN-P2 cells. Cells were plated in 60 mm dishes containing normal growth medium (DMEM without phenol-red, 10% FBS, penicillin/streptomycin, glutamine, Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium, DHT 10-8M). Three days after plating, analogs were individually added onto cells for 6 hours. All analogs were used at 20 μM, except for G1 and plumbagin that were used at 10 μM and 8 μM, respectively. Western blot analyses were performed by using anti-androgen receptor antibodies. Nitrocellulose membranes were subsequently stripped for reprobing with loading control to ensure equal loading. The results are shown in FIG. 6.

Example 20 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone Analogs on ERK Phosphorylation

1,4-Naphthoquinone analogs R1 and G6 were assayed for phosphorylation of ERK and AKT in PTEN-P2 cells. Cells were plated in 60 mm dishes containing normal growth medium (DMEM without phenol-red, 10% FBS, penicillin/streptomycin, glutamine, Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium, DHT 10-8M). Two days after plating, analogs R1 or G6 were added onto cells for various times ranging from 0 to 4 hours (0, 10 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h) at a final concentration of 10 μM. The results are shown in FIG. 7. The lane labeled with “0” was for cells treated with DMSO solvent only. Western blot analyses were performed using anti-phospho ERK antibodies. Nitrocellulose membranes were subsequently stripped and reprobed several times with anti-phospho AKT antibodies, and finally anti-actin antibodies to ensure equal loading.

Example 21 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone Analog R6 on ERK Phosphorylation and AR Degradation

1,4-Naphthoquinone analog R6 was assayed for ERK phosphorylation and AR degradation in PTEN-P2 cells. Cells were plated in 60 mm dishes containing normal growth medium (DMEM without phenol-red, 10% FBS, penicillin/streptomycin, glutamine, Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium, DHT 10-8M). One day after plating, analog R6 was added onto cells for various times ranging from 0 to 5 hours (0, 10 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 5 h) at a final concentration of 10 μM. The results are shown in FIG. 8. The lane labeled with “0” was for cells treated with DMSO solvent only. Western blot analyses were performed using anti-phospho ERK antibodies. Nitrocellulose membranes were subsequently stripped and reprobed several times with anti-AKT, anti-androgen receptor antibodies, and finally anti-actin antibodies to ensure equal loading.

Example 22 In Vivo Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone Analogs Combined with Castration in the Pseudo-Orthotopic Chamber Model for Prostate Cancer

Titanium chambers were surgically implanted onto the dorsal skinfold of male nu/nu mice. Two days later, minced prostate tissue from BalbC mice (syngeneic) was grafted into the chambers and allowed to vascularize for 7 to 10 days. Small tumor cells spheroids grown from PTEN-P2 tumor cells (stably transfected with H2B-GFP fusion protein (PTEN-P2/GFP)) were than implanted onto prostate tissue. When tumor vascularization was established (about 5-7 days), the animals were surgically castrated to inhibit androgen production. Surgical castration induces androgen deprivation, and is known in the art to effectively mimic clinically used hormonal/androgen ablation therapy. Treatment commenced the next day after castration.

FIG. 9 shows the results of treatment of mice with plumbagin, 5-methoxynaphthalene-1,4-dione, or 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione. The plumbagin, 5-methoxynaphthalene-1,4-dione, and 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione (dissolved in sesame seed oil) were administered orally, once a day. The plumbagin dosage was 1 mg/kg. The 5-methoxynaphthalene-1,4-dione and 2-(phenylamino)-naphthalene-1,4-dione dosage was an equimolar dosage to 1 mg/kg of plumbagin (i.e., these compounds were dosed at 5.3 micromol/kg). Day 0 is the first day of treatment with the 1,4-naphthoquinone analog.

The results indicate that the combination treatment of 5-methoxynaphthalene-1,4-dione or 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione with castration was more efficient in vivo than treatment with plumbagin and castration. Therefore, this experiment provides an important indication that castration (whether surgical or chemical) in combination with 5-methoxynaphthalene-1,4-dione or 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione can provide a significant improvement over therapies that were previously known in the art.

TABLE 6 and FIG. 10 show the results of treatment of mice with plumbagin, and several 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs disclosed herein, after 20 days of treatment. Treatments were administered orally, once daily. The plumbagin dosage was 1 mg/kg. The 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs were dosed at an equimolar dosage to 1 mg/kg of plumbagin (i.e., these compounds were dosed at 5.3 micromol/kg). Day 0 is the first day of treatment with plumbagin or the 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs. TABLE 6 and FIG. 10 also include control experiments ran with no treatment and with just surgical castration.

TABLE 6 Effect of 1,4-naphthoquinone analogs on the proliferation of H2B-GFP-PTEN-P2 tumor cells after 20 days of treatment. Values are expressed as the mean tumor size percent calculated from triplicate measurements (MEAN), along with the standard error of the mean (SEM). Analog Description MEAN (%) SEM n/a no treatment (control) 376.1 72.9 n/a surgical castration 97.6 9.9 n/a plumbagin 46.1 5.9 F01 2-phenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone 69.1 1.5 F02 2-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenoxy)- 50.3 4.5 1,4-naphthoquinone F03 2-(4-acetamidophenoxy)-1,4- 74.6 15.5 naphthoquinone F04 2-(2,4,6-trifluorophenoxy)-1,4- 72.8 2.3 naphthoquinone F07 2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)-1,4- 75.6 1.7 naphthoquinone F10 2-(4-hydroxyphenoxy)-1,4- 40.7 3.2 naphthoquinone F21 2,3-diphenoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone 64.7 2.4 F35 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione 35.1 8.9 F36 2-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl- 74.7 5.2 amino)naphthalene-1,4-dione F38 N-(1,4-dioxo-3-phenoxy-1,4- 86.1 4.7 dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide F43 N-(3-(3,5-difluorophenoxy)-1,4-dioxo-1,4- 60.4 2.2 dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)acetamide F46 methyl 2-((8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1,4-dioxo- 70.0 6.6 1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)thio)acetate F47 5-methoxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone 71.2 9.1 F48 5-(4-iodopropoxy)-2-methyl-1,4- 63.9 7.6 naphthoquinone F51 5-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone 42.8 2.7 F52 5,8-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone 67.2 4.0 F54 6-methyl-5,8-dioxo-5,8- 77.0 11.7 dihydronaphthalen-1-yl acetate F55 6-methyl-5,8-dioxo-5,8- 43.8 2.2 dihydronaphthalen-1-yl 2-chloroacetate F58 4-((1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2- 47.0 1.8 yl)amino)benzenesulfonamide F60 2-(p-tolylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione 66.8 6.1 F61 2-((3,5-difluorophenyl)amino)naphthalene- 64.1 5.4 1,4-dione F62 2-((4-chlorophenyl)amino)naphthalene- 144.9 9.8 1,4-dione

It will be understood by those of skill in the art that numerous and various modifications can be made without departing from the spirit of the present disclosure. Therefore, it should be clearly understood that the forms disclosed herein are illustrative only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure. 

1. A 1,4-naphthoquinone analog compound having the chemical structure of:


2. A method of inhibiting or delaying the growth of prostate cancer, comprising administering to a subject having prostate cancer a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof:

wherein: R¹ is —O—R³ or —NR⁴R⁵; R² is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, and —O—R³; R³ is an optionally substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is optionally substituted with one to five groups independently selected from the group consisting of —OH, —COOH, —NR⁶R⁷, halogen, nitro, cyano, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy, C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —(C═O)—O—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —C₁₋₆ alkyl-N(R⁶)(R⁷), —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl; R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and an optionally substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is optionally substituted with one to five groups independently selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy, C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SO₂N—C(═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —SO₂NH₂; R⁶ and R⁷ are independently selected from hydrogen and an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; wherein the growth of prostate cancer is inhibited or delayed; and, optionally, wherein the compound of Formula (I) is administered to the subject in combination with, subsequent to, or concomitantly with, an androgen deprivation therapy. 3-30. (canceled)
 31. The method of claim 2, wherein the compound of Formula (I) is selected from the group consisting of: 2-(phenylamino)naphthalene-1,4-dione; 4-((1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-2-yl)amino)benzenesulfonamide; 2-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone; 2,3-dimethoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone; and 2-(4-hydroxyphenoxy)-1,4-naphthoquinone.
 32. The method of claim 2, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy is surgical orchiectomy.
 33. The method of claim 2, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy is administration of one or more agents selected from the group consisting of cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.
 34. The method of claim 2, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy reduces the production of testosterone and/or inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT.
 35. The method of claim 2, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy is administration of one or more agents selected from the group consisting of abiraterone, finasteride, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, equol, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy is administration of one or more agents selected from the group consisting of abiraterone, leuprolide, degarelix, and dutasteride.
 37. The method of claim 2, wherein the androgen deprivation therapy decreases the subject's serum testosterone level to about 1-2%, 2-4%, 1-5%, 4-6%, 4-8%, or 5-10% of a healthy male subject.
 38. The method of claim 2, wherein the androgen deprivation therapy decreases the subject's serum testosterone level to at least about ≦20 ng/dL.
 39. A method of inhibiting or delaying the growth of prostate cancer, comprising administering to a subject having prostate cancer a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (III) or a compound having the following chemical structure or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof:

wherein R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ haloalkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —(C═O)—C₁₋₆haloalkyl; wherein the growth of prostate cancer is inhibited or delayed; and, optionally, wherein the compound of Formula (III) or Formula (F51) is administered to the subject in combination with, subsequent to, or concomitantly with, an androgen deprivation therapy.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein the compound of Formula (III) is 6-methyl-5, 8-dioxo-5, 8-dihydronaphthalen-1-yl 2-chloroacetate.
 41. The method of claim 39, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy is surgical orchiectomy.
 42. The method of claim 39, wherein said androgen deprivation therapy is administration of one or more agents selected from the group consisting of cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.
 43. The method of claim 39, wherein the androgen deprivation therapy decreases the subject's serum testosterone level to about 1-2%, 2-4%, 1-5%, 4-6%, 4-8%, or 5-10% of a healthy male subject.
 44. The method of claim 39, wherein the androgen deprivation therapy decreases the subject's serum testosterone level to at least about ≦20 ng/dL.
 45. A product combination that inhibits prostate cancer in a subject, wherein the product combination comprises a compound of Formula (I), Formula (III), or Formula (F51), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a hormone therapy agent; and wherein the compound of Formula (I), Formula (III), and Formula (F51) have the following structures:

wherein: R¹ is —O—R³ or —NR⁴R⁵; R² is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, and —O—R³; R³ is an optionally substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is optionally substituted with one to five groups independently selected from the group consisting of —OH, —COOH, —NR⁶R⁷, halogen, nitro, cyano, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy, C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —(C═O)—O—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —N—(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ alkyl-N(R⁶)(R⁷), —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —O(C═O)—NH—C₁₋₆ haloalkyl; R⁴ and R⁵ can be independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and an optionally substituted aryl, wherein the aryl is optionally substituted with one to five groups independently selected from halogen, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ haloalkyl, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, C₁₋₆ haloalkoxy, C₆-C₁₄ aryloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyloxy, C₆-C₁₄ aralkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SO₂N—C(═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —SO₂NH₂; R⁶ and R⁷ are independently selected from hydrogen and an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; and R¹¹ is selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ haloalkyl, —(C═O)—C₁₋₆ alkyl, and —(C═O)—C₁₋₆haloalkyl.
 46. The product combination of claim 45, wherein said hormone therapy agent comprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of cyproterone acetate, abiraterone, finasteride, flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, estamustine phosphate, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, enzalutamide, ARN-509, vinclozolin, galeterone, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, genisterin, gossypol, equol, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, altraric acid, N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide, 3,3′-diindolylmethane, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.
 47. The product combination of claim 45, wherein said hormone therapy agent reduces the production of testosterone and/or inhibits the conversion of testosterone to DHT.
 48. The product combination of claim 45, wherein said hormone therapy agent comprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of abiraterone, finasteride, diethylstilbestrol (DES), megestrol acetate, fosfestrol, leuprolide, triptorelin, goserelin, histrelin, buserelin, abarelix, degarelix, orteronel, VT-464, ketoconazole, L-39, aminoglutethimide, prochloraz, dutasteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, equol, deslorelin, nafarelin, cetrorelix, and ganirelix.
 49. The product combination of claim 45, wherein said hormone therapy agent comprises one or more agents selected from the group consisting of abiraterone, leuprolide, degarelix, and dutasteride. 